diff --git a/index.html b/index.html index 97f6133..542b0e7 100644 --- a/index.html +++ b/index.html @@ -18,7 +18,7 @@

The Linux Kernel Module Programming Guide

Peter Jay Salzman, Michael Burian, Ori Pomerantz, Bob Mottram, Jim Huang

-
April 16, 2022
+
April 18, 2022
@@ -2417,109 +2417,159 @@ under the / 

1ls -l /sys
-

An example of a hello world module which includes the creation of a variable -accessible via sysfs is given below. +

Attributes can be exported for kobjects in the form of regular files in the +filesystem. Sysfs forwards file I/O operations to methods defined for the attributes, +providing a means to read and write kernel attributes. +

An attribute definition in simply:

- 
1/* 
-2 * hello-sysfs.c sysfs example 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/fs.h> 
-5#include <linux/init.h> 
-6#include <linux/kobject.h> 
-7#include <linux/module.h> 
-8#include <linux/string.h> 
-9#include <linux/sysfs.h> 
-10 
-11static struct kobject *mymodule; 
-12 
-13/* the variable you want to be able to change */ 
-14static int myvariable = 0; 
-15 
-16static ssize_t myvariable_show(struct kobject *kobj, 
-17                               struct kobj_attribute *attr, char *buf) 
-18{ 
-19    return sprintf(buf, "%d\n", myvariable); 
-20} 
-21 
-22static ssize_t myvariable_store(struct kobject *kobj, 
-23                                struct kobj_attribute *attr, char *buf, 
-24                                size_t count) 
-25{ 
-26    sscanf(buf, "%du", &myvariable); 
-27    return count; 
-28} 
-29 
-30static struct kobj_attribute myvariable_attribute = 
-31    __ATTR(myvariable, 0660, myvariable_show, (void *)myvariable_store); 
-32 
-33static int __init mymodule_init(void) 
-34{ 
-35    int error = 0; 
-36 
-37    pr_info("mymodule: initialised\n"); 
-38 
-39    mymodule = kobject_create_and_add("mymodule", kernel_kobj); 
-40    if (!mymodule) 
-41        return -ENOMEM; 
-42 
-43    error = sysfs_create_file(mymodule, &myvariable_attribute.attr); 
-44    if (error) { 
-45        pr_info("failed to create the myvariable file " 
-46                "in /sys/kernel/mymodule\n"); 
-47    } 
-48 
-49    return error; 
-50} 
-51 
-52static void __exit mymodule_exit(void) 
-53{ 
-54    pr_info("mymodule: Exit success\n"); 
-55    kobject_put(mymodule); 
-56} 
-57 
-58module_init(mymodule_init); 
-59module_exit(mymodule_exit); 
-60 
-61MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
-

Make and install the module: + 

1struct attribute { 
+2    char *name; 
+3    struct module *owner; 
+4    umode_t mode; 
+5}; 
+6 
+7int sysfs_create_file(struct kobject * kobj, const struct attribute * attr); 
+8void sysfs_remove_file(struct kobject * kobj, const struct attribute * attr);
+

For example, the driver model defines + struct device_attribute + like:

-

- 
1make 
-2sudo insmod hello-sysfs.ko
-

Check that it exists: +

+ 
1struct device_attribute { 
+2    struct attribute attr; 
+3    ssize_t (*show)(struct device *dev, struct device_attribute *attr, 
+4                    char *buf); 
+5    ssize_t (*store)(struct device *dev, struct device_attribute *attr, 
+6                    const char *buf, size_t count); 
+7}; 
+8 
+9int device_create_file(struct device *, const struct device_attribute *); 
+10void device_remove_file(struct device *, const struct device_attribute *);
+

To read or write attributes, show() + or store() + method must be specified when declaring the attribute. For the +common cases include/linux/sysfs.h provides convenience macros +( __ATTR +, __ATTR_RO +, __ATTR_WO +, etc.) to make defining attributes easier as well as making code more concise and +readable. +

An example of a hello world module which includes the creation of a variable +accessible via sysfs is given below.

- 
1sudo lsmod | grep hello_sysfs
-

What is the current value of myvariable + 

1/* 
+2 * hello-sysfs.c sysfs example 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/fs.h> 
+5#include <linux/init.h> 
+6#include <linux/kobject.h> 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
+8#include <linux/string.h> 
+9#include <linux/sysfs.h> 
+10 
+11static struct kobject *mymodule; 
+12 
+13/* the variable you want to be able to change */ 
+14static int myvariable = 0; 
+15 
+16static ssize_t myvariable_show(struct kobject *kobj, 
+17                               struct kobj_attribute *attr, char *buf) 
+18{ 
+19    return sprintf(buf, "%d\n", myvariable); 
+20} 
+21 
+22static ssize_t myvariable_store(struct kobject *kobj, 
+23                                struct kobj_attribute *attr, char *buf, 
+24                                size_t count) 
+25{ 
+26    sscanf(buf, "%du", &myvariable); 
+27    return count; 
+28} 
+29 
+30static struct kobj_attribute myvariable_attribute = 
+31    __ATTR(myvariable, 0660, myvariable_show, (void *)myvariable_store); 
+32 
+33static int __init mymodule_init(void) 
+34{ 
+35    int error = 0; 
+36 
+37    pr_info("mymodule: initialised\n"); 
+38 
+39    mymodule = kobject_create_and_add("mymodule", kernel_kobj); 
+40    if (!mymodule) 
+41        return -ENOMEM; 
+42 
+43    error = sysfs_create_file(mymodule, &myvariable_attribute.attr); 
+44    if (error) { 
+45        pr_info("failed to create the myvariable file " 
+46                "in /sys/kernel/mymodule\n"); 
+47    } 
+48 
+49    return error; 
+50} 
+51 
+52static void __exit mymodule_exit(void) 
+53{ 
+54    pr_info("mymodule: Exit success\n"); 
+55    kobject_put(mymodule); 
+56} 
+57 
+58module_init(mymodule_init); 
+59module_exit(mymodule_exit); 
+60 
+61MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
+

Make and install the module: +

+

+ 
1make 
+2sudo insmod hello-sysfs.ko
+

Check that it exists: +

+

+ 
1sudo lsmod | grep hello_sysfs
+

What is the current value of myvariable ?

- 
1cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable
-

Set the value of myvariable + 

1cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable
+

Set the value of myvariable and check that it changed.

- 
1echo "32" > /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable 
-2cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable
-

Finally, remove the test module: + 

1echo "32" > /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable 
+2cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable
+

Finally, remove the test module:

- 
1sudo rmmod hello_sysfs
-

+ 

1sudo rmmod hello_sysfs
+ + + +

In the above case, we use a simple kobject to create a directory under +sysfs, and communicate with its attributes. Since Linux v2.6.0, the + kobject + structure made its appearance. It was initially meant as a simple way of +unifying kernel code which manages reference counted objects. After a +bit of mission creep, it is now the glue that holds much of the device +model and its sysfs interface together. For more information about kobject +and sysfs, see Documentation/driver-api/driver-model/driver.rst and +https://lwn.net/Articles/51437/. +

9 Talking To Device Files

-

Device files are supposed to represent physical devices. Most physical devices are +

Device files are supposed to represent physical devices. Most physical devices are used for output as well as input, so there has to be some mechanism for device drivers in the kernel to get the output to send to the device from processes. This is done by opening the device file for output and writing to it, just like writing to a file. In the following example, this is implemented by device_write . -

This is not always enough. Imagine you had a serial port connected to a modem +

This is not always enough. Imagine you had a serial port connected to a modem (even if you have an internal modem, it is still implemented from the CPU’s perspective as a serial port connected to a modem, so you don’t have to tax your imagination too hard). The natural thing to do would be to use the @@ -2529,10 +2579,7 @@ responses for commands or the data received through the phone line). However, this leaves open the question of what to do when you need to talk to the serial port itself, for example to configure the rate at which data is sent and received. - - - -

The answer in Unix is to use a special function called +

The answer in Unix is to use a special function called ioctl (short for Input Output ConTroL). Every device can have its own ioctl @@ -2541,154 +2588,157 @@ kernel), write ioctl’s (to return information to a process), both or neither. here the roles of read and write are reversed again, so in ioctl’s read is to send information to the kernel and write is to receive information from the kernel. -

The ioctl function is called with three parameters: the file descriptor of the +

The ioctl function is called with three parameters: the file descriptor of the appropriate device file, the ioctl number, and a parameter, which is of type long so you can use a cast to use it to pass anything. You will not be able to pass a structure this way, but you will be able to pass a pointer to the structure. Here is an example: + + +

- 
1/* 
-2 * ioctl.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/cdev.h> 
-5#include <linux/fs.h> 
-6#include <linux/init.h> 
-7#include <linux/ioctl.h> 
-8#include <linux/module.h> 
-9#include <linux/slab.h> 
-10#include <linux/uaccess.h> 
+   
1/* 
+2 * ioctl.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/cdev.h> 
+5#include <linux/fs.h> 
+6#include <linux/init.h> 
+7#include <linux/ioctl.h> 
+8#include <linux/module.h> 
+9#include <linux/slab.h> 
+10#include <linux/uaccess.h> 
 11 
-12struct ioctl_arg { 
-13    unsigned int val; 
+12struct ioctl_arg { 
+13    unsigned int val; 
 14}; 
 15 
-16/* Documentation/ioctl/ioctl-number.txt */ 
-17#define IOC_MAGIC '\x66' 
+16/* Documentation/ioctl/ioctl-number.txt */ 
+17#define IOC_MAGIC '\x66' 
 18 
-19#define IOCTL_VALSET _IOW(IOC_MAGIC, 0, struct ioctl_arg) 
-20#define IOCTL_VALGET _IOR(IOC_MAGIC, 1, struct ioctl_arg) 
-21#define IOCTL_VALGET_NUM _IOR(IOC_MAGIC, 2, int) 
-22#define IOCTL_VALSET_NUM _IOW(IOC_MAGIC, 3, int) 
+19#define IOCTL_VALSET _IOW(IOC_MAGIC, 0, struct ioctl_arg) 
+20#define IOCTL_VALGET _IOR(IOC_MAGIC, 1, struct ioctl_arg) 
+21#define IOCTL_VALGET_NUM _IOR(IOC_MAGIC, 2, int) 
+22#define IOCTL_VALSET_NUM _IOW(IOC_MAGIC, 3, int) 
 23 
-24#define IOCTL_VAL_MAXNR 3 
-25#define DRIVER_NAME "ioctltest" 
+24#define IOCTL_VAL_MAXNR 3 
+25#define DRIVER_NAME "ioctltest" 
 26 
-27static unsigned int test_ioctl_major = 0; 
-28static unsigned int num_of_dev = 1; 
-29static struct cdev test_ioctl_cdev; 
-30static int ioctl_num = 0; 
+27static unsigned int test_ioctl_major = 0; 
+28static unsigned int num_of_dev = 1; 
+29static struct cdev test_ioctl_cdev; 
+30static int ioctl_num = 0; 
 31 
-32struct test_ioctl_data { 
-33    unsigned char val; 
+32struct test_ioctl_data { 
+33    unsigned char val; 
 34    rwlock_t lock; 
 35}; 
 36 
-37static long test_ioctl_ioctl(struct file *filp, unsigned int cmd, 
-38                             unsigned long arg) 
+37static long test_ioctl_ioctl(struct file *filp, unsigned int cmd, 
+38                             unsigned long arg) 
 39{ 
-40    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data = filp->private_data; 
-41    int retval = 0; 
-42    unsigned char val; 
-43    struct ioctl_arg data; 
-44    memset(&data, 0, sizeof(data)); 
+40    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data = filp->private_data; 
+41    int retval = 0; 
+42    unsigned char val; 
+43    struct ioctl_arg data; 
+44    memset(&data, 0, sizeof(data)); 
 45 
-46    switch (cmd) { 
-47    case IOCTL_VALSET: 
-48        if (copy_from_user(&data, (int __user *)arg, sizeof(data))) { 
+46    switch (cmd) { 
+47    case IOCTL_VALSET: 
+48        if (copy_from_user(&data, (int __user *)arg, sizeof(data))) { 
 49            retval = -EFAULT; 
-50            goto done; 
+50            goto done; 
 51        } 
 52 
-53        pr_alert("IOCTL set val:%x .\n", data.val); 
+53        pr_alert("IOCTL set val:%x .\n", data.val); 
 54        write_lock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 55        ioctl_data->val = data.val; 
 56        write_unlock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
-57        break; 
+57        break; 
 58 
-59    case IOCTL_VALGET: 
+59    case IOCTL_VALGET: 
 60        read_lock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 61        val = ioctl_data->val; 
 62        read_unlock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 63        data.val = val; 
 64 
-65        if (copy_to_user((int __user *)arg, &data, sizeof(data))) { 
+65        if (copy_to_user((int __user *)arg, &data, sizeof(data))) { 
 66            retval = -EFAULT; 
-67            goto done; 
+67            goto done; 
 68        } 
 69 
-70        break; 
+70        break; 
 71 
-72    case IOCTL_VALGET_NUM: 
-73        retval = __put_user(ioctl_num, (int __user *)arg); 
-74        break; 
+72    case IOCTL_VALGET_NUM: 
+73        retval = __put_user(ioctl_num, (int __user *)arg); 
+74        break; 
 75 
-76    case IOCTL_VALSET_NUM: 
+76    case IOCTL_VALSET_NUM: 
 77        ioctl_num = arg; 
-78        break; 
+78        break; 
 79 
-80    default: 
+80    default: 
 81        retval = -ENOTTY; 
 82    } 
 83 
 84done: 
-85    return retval; 
+85    return retval; 
 86} 
 87 
-88static ssize_t test_ioctl_read(struct file *filp, char __user *buf, 
-89                               size_t count, loff_t *f_pos) 
+88static ssize_t test_ioctl_read(struct file *filp, char __user *buf, 
+89                               size_t count, loff_t *f_pos) 
 90{ 
-91    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data = filp->private_data; 
-92    unsigned char val; 
-93    int retval; 
-94    int i = 0; 
+91    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data = filp->private_data; 
+92    unsigned char val; 
+93    int retval; 
+94    int i = 0; 
 95 
 96    read_lock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 97    val = ioctl_data->val; 
 98    read_unlock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 99 
-100    for (; i < count; i++) { 
-101        if (copy_to_user(&buf[i], &val, 1)) { 
+100    for (; i < count; i++) { 
+101        if (copy_to_user(&buf[i], &val, 1)) { 
 102            retval = -EFAULT; 
-103            goto out; 
+103            goto out; 
 104        } 
 105    } 
 106 
 107    retval = count; 
 108out: 
-109    return retval; 
+109    return retval; 
 110} 
 111 
-112static int test_ioctl_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *filp) 
+112static int test_ioctl_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *filp) 
 113{ 
-114    pr_alert("%s call.\n", __func__); 
+114    pr_alert("%s call.\n", __func__); 
 115 
-116    if (filp->private_data) { 
+116    if (filp->private_data) { 
 117        kfree(filp->private_data); 
 118        filp->private_data = NULL; 
 119    } 
 120 
-121    return 0; 
+121    return 0; 
 122} 
 123 
-124static int test_ioctl_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *filp) 
+124static int test_ioctl_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *filp) 
 125{ 
-126    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data; 
+126    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data; 
 127 
-128    pr_alert("%s call.\n", __func__); 
-129    ioctl_data = kmalloc(sizeof(struct test_ioctl_data), GFP_KERNEL); 
+128    pr_alert("%s call.\n", __func__); 
+129    ioctl_data = kmalloc(sizeof(struct test_ioctl_data), GFP_KERNEL); 
 130 
-131    if (ioctl_data == NULL) 
-132        return -ENOMEM; 
+131    if (ioctl_data == NULL) 
+132        return -ENOMEM; 
 133 
 134    rwlock_init(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 135    ioctl_data->val = 0xFF; 
 136    filp->private_data = ioctl_data; 
 137 
-138    return 0; 
+138    return 0; 
 139} 
 140 
-141static struct file_operations fops = { 
+141static struct file_operations fops = { 
 142    .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
 143    .open = test_ioctl_open, 
 144    .release = test_ioctl_close, 
@@ -2696,49 +2746,49 @@ example:
 146    .unlocked_ioctl = test_ioctl_ioctl, 
 147}; 
 148 
-149static int ioctl_init(void) 
+149static int ioctl_init(void) 
 150{ 
-151    dev_t dev; 
-152    int alloc_ret = -1; 
-153    int cdev_ret = -1; 
+151    dev_t dev; 
+152    int alloc_ret = -1; 
+153    int cdev_ret = -1; 
 154    alloc_ret = alloc_chrdev_region(&dev, 0, num_of_dev, DRIVER_NAME); 
 155 
-156    if (alloc_ret) 
-157        goto error; 
+156    if (alloc_ret) 
+157        goto error; 
 158 
 159    test_ioctl_major = MAJOR(dev); 
 160    cdev_init(&test_ioctl_cdev, &fops); 
 161    cdev_ret = cdev_add(&test_ioctl_cdev, dev, num_of_dev); 
 162 
-163    if (cdev_ret) 
-164        goto error; 
+163    if (cdev_ret) 
+164        goto error; 
 165 
-166    pr_alert("%s driver(major: %d) installed.\n", DRIVER_NAME, 
+166    pr_alert("%s driver(major: %d) installed.\n", DRIVER_NAME, 
 167             test_ioctl_major); 
-168    return 0; 
+168    return 0; 
 169error: 
-170    if (cdev_ret == 0) 
+170    if (cdev_ret == 0) 
 171        cdev_del(&test_ioctl_cdev); 
-172    if (alloc_ret == 0) 
+172    if (alloc_ret == 0) 
 173        unregister_chrdev_region(dev, num_of_dev); 
-174    return -1; 
+174    return -1; 
 175} 
 176 
-177static void ioctl_exit(void) 
+177static void ioctl_exit(void) 
 178{ 
-179    dev_t dev = MKDEV(test_ioctl_major, 0); 
+179    dev_t dev = MKDEV(test_ioctl_major, 0); 
 180 
 181    cdev_del(&test_ioctl_cdev); 
 182    unregister_chrdev_region(dev, num_of_dev); 
-183    pr_alert("%s driver removed.\n", DRIVER_NAME); 
+183    pr_alert("%s driver removed.\n", DRIVER_NAME); 
 184} 
 185 
 186module_init(ioctl_init); 
 187module_exit(ioctl_exit); 
 188 
-189MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-190MODULE_DESCRIPTION("This is test_ioctl module");

-
   You can see there is an argument called
+189MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+190MODULE_DESCRIPTION("This is test_ioctl module");
+

You can see there is an argument called cmd in test_ioctl_ioctl() function. It is the ioctl number. The ioctl number encodes the major @@ -2753,412 +2803,412 @@ included both by the programs which will use ioctl (so they can generate the appropriate ioctl’s) and by the kernel module (so it can understand it). In the example below, the header file is chardev.h and the program which uses it is userspace_ioctl.c. -

If you want to use ioctls in your own kernel modules, it is best to receive an +

If you want to use ioctls in your own kernel modules, it is best to receive an official ioctl assignment, so if you accidentally get somebody else’s ioctls, or if they get yours, you’ll know something is wrong. For more information, consult the kernel source tree at Documentation/userspace-api/ioctl/ioctl-number.rst. -

Also, we need to be careful that concurrent access to the shared resources will +

Also, we need to be careful that concurrent access to the shared resources will lead to the race condition. The solution is using atomic Compare-And-Swap (CAS), which we mentioned at 6.5 section, to enforce the exclusive access.

- 
1/* 
-2 * chardev2.c - Create an input/output character device 
-3 */ 
+   
1/* 
+2 * chardev2.c - Create an input/output character device 
+3 */ 
 4 
-5#include <linux/cdev.h> 
-6#include <linux/delay.h> 
-7#include <linux/device.h> 
-8#include <linux/fs.h> 
-9#include <linux/init.h> 
-10#include <linux/irq.h> 
-11#include <linux/kernel.h> /* We are doing kernel work */ 
-12#include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */ 
-13#include <linux/poll.h> 
+5#include <linux/cdev.h> 
+6#include <linux/delay.h> 
+7#include <linux/device.h> 
+8#include <linux/fs.h> 
+9#include <linux/init.h> 
+10#include <linux/irq.h> 
+11#include <linux/kernel.h> /* We are doing kernel work */ 
+12#include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */ 
+13#include <linux/poll.h> 
 14 
-15#include "chardev.h" 
-16#define SUCCESS 0 
-17#define DEVICE_NAME "char_dev" 
-18#define BUF_LEN 80 
+15#include "chardev.h" 
+16#define SUCCESS 0 
+17#define DEVICE_NAME "char_dev" 
+18#define BUF_LEN 80 
 19 
-20enum { 
+20enum { 
 21    CDEV_NOT_USED = 0, 
 22    CDEV_EXCLUSIVE_OPEN = 1, 
 23}; 
 24 
-25/* Is the device open right now? Used to prevent concurrent access into 
-26 * the same device 
-27 */ 
-28static atomic_t already_open = ATOMIC_INIT(CDEV_NOT_USED); 
+25/* Is the device open right now? Used to prevent concurrent access into 
+26 * the same device 
+27 */ 
+28static atomic_t already_open = ATOMIC_INIT(CDEV_NOT_USED); 
 29 
-30/* The message the device will give when asked */ 
-31static char message[BUF_LEN]; 
+30/* The message the device will give when asked */ 
+31static char message[BUF_LEN]; 
 32 
-33static struct class *cls; 
+33static struct class *cls; 
 34 
-35/* This is called whenever a process attempts to open the device file */ 
-36static int device_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+35/* This is called whenever a process attempts to open the device file */ 
+36static int device_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
 37{ 
-38    pr_info("device_open(%p)\n", file); 
+38    pr_info("device_open(%p)\n", file); 
 39 
 40    try_module_get(THIS_MODULE); 
-41    return SUCCESS; 
+41    return SUCCESS; 
 42} 
 43 
-44static int device_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+44static int device_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
 45{ 
-46    pr_info("device_release(%p,%p)\n", inode, file); 
+46    pr_info("device_release(%p,%p)\n", inode, file); 
 47 
 48    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
-49    return SUCCESS; 
+49    return SUCCESS; 
 50} 
 51 
-52/* This function is called whenever a process which has already opened the 
-53 * device file attempts to read from it. 
-54 */ 
-55static ssize_t device_read(struct file *file, /* see include/linux/fs.h   */ 
-56                           char __user *buffer, /* buffer to be filled  */ 
-57                           size_t length, /* length of the buffer     */ 
+52/* This function is called whenever a process which has already opened the 
+53 * device file attempts to read from it. 
+54 */ 
+55static ssize_t device_read(struct file *file, /* see include/linux/fs.h   */ 
+56                           char __user *buffer, /* buffer to be filled  */ 
+57                           size_t length, /* length of the buffer     */ 
 58                           loff_t *offset) 
 59{ 
-60    /* Number of bytes actually written to the buffer */ 
-61    int bytes_read = 0; 
-62    /* How far did the process reading the message get? Useful if the message 
-63     * is larger than the size of the buffer we get to fill in device_read. 
-64     */ 
-65    const char *message_ptr = message; 
+60    /* Number of bytes actually written to the buffer */ 
+61    int bytes_read = 0; 
+62    /* How far did the process reading the message get? Useful if the message 
+63     * is larger than the size of the buffer we get to fill in device_read. 
+64     */ 
+65    const char *message_ptr = message; 
 66 
-67    if (!*(message_ptr + *offset)) { /* we are at the end of message */ 
-68        *offset = 0; /* reset the offset */ 
-69        return 0; /* signify end of file */ 
+67    if (!*(message_ptr + *offset)) { /* we are at the end of message */ 
+68        *offset = 0; /* reset the offset */ 
+69        return 0; /* signify end of file */ 
 70    } 
 71 
 72    message_ptr += *offset; 
 73 
-74    /* Actually put the data into the buffer */ 
-75    while (length && *message_ptr) { 
-76        /* Because the buffer is in the user data segment, not the kernel 
-77         * data segment, assignment would not work. Instead, we have to 
-78         * use put_user which copies data from the kernel data segment to 
-79         * the user data segment. 
-80         */ 
+74    /* Actually put the data into the buffer */ 
+75    while (length && *message_ptr) { 
+76        /* Because the buffer is in the user data segment, not the kernel 
+77         * data segment, assignment would not work. Instead, we have to 
+78         * use put_user which copies data from the kernel data segment to 
+79         * the user data segment. 
+80         */ 
 81        put_user(*(message_ptr++), buffer++); 
 82        length--; 
 83        bytes_read++; 
 84    } 
 85 
-86    pr_info("Read %d bytes, %ld left\n", bytes_read, length); 
+86    pr_info("Read %d bytes, %ld left\n", bytes_read, length); 
 87 
 88    *offset += bytes_read; 
 89 
-90    /* Read functions are supposed to return the number of bytes actually 
-91     * inserted into the buffer. 
-92     */ 
-93    return bytes_read; 
+90    /* Read functions are supposed to return the number of bytes actually 
+91     * inserted into the buffer. 
+92     */ 
+93    return bytes_read; 
 94} 
 95 
-96/* called when somebody tries to write into our device file. */ 
-97static ssize_t device_write(struct file *file, const char __user *buffer, 
-98                            size_t length, loff_t *offset) 
+96/* called when somebody tries to write into our device file. */ 
+97static ssize_t device_write(struct file *file, const char __user *buffer, 
+98                            size_t length, loff_t *offset) 
 99{ 
-100    int i; 
+100    int i; 
 101 
-102    pr_info("device_write(%p,%p,%ld)", file, buffer, length); 
+102    pr_info("device_write(%p,%p,%ld)", file, buffer, length); 
 103 
-104    for (i = 0; i < length && i < BUF_LEN; i++) 
+104    for (i = 0; i < length && i < BUF_LEN; i++) 
 105        get_user(message[i], buffer + i); 
 106 
-107    /* Again, return the number of input characters used. */ 
-108    return i; 
+107    /* Again, return the number of input characters used. */ 
+108    return i; 
 109} 
 110 
-111/* This function is called whenever a process tries to do an ioctl on our 
-112 * device file. We get two extra parameters (additional to the inode and file 
-113 * structures, which all device functions get): the number of the ioctl called 
-114 * and the parameter given to the ioctl function. 
-115 * 
-116 * If the ioctl is write or read/write (meaning output is returned to the 
-117 * calling process), the ioctl call returns the output of this function. 
-118 */ 
-119static long 
-120device_ioctl(struct file *file, /* ditto */ 
-121             unsigned int ioctl_num, /* number and param for ioctl */ 
-122             unsigned long ioctl_param) 
+111/* This function is called whenever a process tries to do an ioctl on our 
+112 * device file. We get two extra parameters (additional to the inode and file 
+113 * structures, which all device functions get): the number of the ioctl called 
+114 * and the parameter given to the ioctl function. 
+115 * 
+116 * If the ioctl is write or read/write (meaning output is returned to the 
+117 * calling process), the ioctl call returns the output of this function. 
+118 */ 
+119static long 
+120device_ioctl(struct file *file, /* ditto */ 
+121             unsigned int ioctl_num, /* number and param for ioctl */ 
+122             unsigned long ioctl_param) 
 123{ 
-124    int i; 
-125    long ret = SUCCESS; 
+124    int i; 
+125    long ret = SUCCESS; 
 126 
-127    /* We don't want to talk to two processes at the same time. */ 
-128    if (atomic_cmpxchg(&already_open, CDEV_NOT_USED, CDEV_EXCLUSIVE_OPEN)) 
-129        return -EBUSY; 
+127    /* We don't want to talk to two processes at the same time. */ 
+128    if (atomic_cmpxchg(&already_open, CDEV_NOT_USED, CDEV_EXCLUSIVE_OPEN)) 
+129        return -EBUSY; 
 130 
-131    /* Switch according to the ioctl called */ 
-132    switch (ioctl_num) { 
-133    case IOCTL_SET_MSG: { 
-134        /* Receive a pointer to a message (in user space) and set that to 
-135         * be the device's message. Get the parameter given to ioctl by 
-136         * the process. 
-137         */ 
-138        char __user *tmp = (char __user *)ioctl_param; 
-139        char ch; 
+131    /* Switch according to the ioctl called */ 
+132    switch (ioctl_num) { 
+133    case IOCTL_SET_MSG: { 
+134        /* Receive a pointer to a message (in user space) and set that to 
+135         * be the device's message. Get the parameter given to ioctl by 
+136         * the process. 
+137         */ 
+138        char __user *tmp = (char __user *)ioctl_param; 
+139        char ch; 
 140 
-141        /* Find the length of the message */ 
+141        /* Find the length of the message */ 
 142        get_user(ch, tmp); 
-143        for (i = 0; ch && i < BUF_LEN; i++, tmp++) 
+143        for (i = 0; ch && i < BUF_LEN; i++, tmp++) 
 144            get_user(ch, tmp); 
 145 
-146        device_write(file, (char __user *)ioctl_param, i, NULL); 
-147        break; 
+146        device_write(file, (char __user *)ioctl_param, i, NULL); 
+147        break; 
 148    } 
-149    case IOCTL_GET_MSG: { 
+149    case IOCTL_GET_MSG: { 
 150        loff_t offset = 0; 
 151 
-152        /* Give the current message to the calling process - the parameter 
-153         * we got is a pointer, fill it. 
-154         */ 
-155        i = device_read(file, (char __user *)ioctl_param, 99, &offset); 
+152        /* Give the current message to the calling process - the parameter 
+153         * we got is a pointer, fill it. 
+154         */ 
+155        i = device_read(file, (char __user *)ioctl_param, 99, &offset); 
 156 
-157        /* Put a zero at the end of the buffer, so it will be properly 
-158         * terminated. 
-159         */ 
-160        put_user('\0', (char __user *)ioctl_param + i); 
-161        break; 
+157        /* Put a zero at the end of the buffer, so it will be properly 
+158         * terminated. 
+159         */ 
+160        put_user('\0', (char __user *)ioctl_param + i); 
+161        break; 
 162    } 
-163    case IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE: 
-164        /* This ioctl is both input (ioctl_param) and output (the return 
-165         * value of this function). 
-166         */ 
-167        ret = (long)message[ioctl_param]; 
-168        break; 
+163    case IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE: 
+164        /* This ioctl is both input (ioctl_param) and output (the return 
+165         * value of this function). 
+166         */ 
+167        ret = (long)message[ioctl_param]; 
+168        break; 
 169    } 
 170 
-171    /* We're now ready for our next caller */ 
+171    /* We're now ready for our next caller */ 
 172    atomic_set(&already_open, CDEV_NOT_USED); 
 173 
-174    return ret; 
+174    return ret; 
 175} 
 176 
-177/* Module Declarations */ 
+177/* Module Declarations */ 
 178 
-179/* This structure will hold the functions to be called when a process does 
-180 * something to the device we created. Since a pointer to this structure 
-181 * is kept in the devices table, it can't be local to init_module. NULL is 
-182 * for unimplemented functions. 
-183 */ 
-184static struct file_operations fops = { 
+179/* This structure will hold the functions to be called when a process does 
+180 * something to the device we created. Since a pointer to this structure 
+181 * is kept in the devices table, it can't be local to init_module. NULL is 
+182 * for unimplemented functions. 
+183 */ 
+184static struct file_operations fops = { 
 185    .read = device_read, 
 186    .write = device_write, 
 187    .unlocked_ioctl = device_ioctl, 
 188    .open = device_open, 
-189    .release = device_release, /* a.k.a. close */ 
+189    .release = device_release, /* a.k.a. close */ 
 190}; 
 191 
-192/* Initialize the module - Register the character device */ 
-193static int __init chardev2_init(void) 
+192/* Initialize the module - Register the character device */ 
+193static int __init chardev2_init(void) 
 194{ 
-195    /* Register the character device (atleast try) */ 
-196    int ret_val = register_chrdev(MAJOR_NUM, DEVICE_NAME, &fops); 
+195    /* Register the character device (atleast try) */ 
+196    int ret_val = register_chrdev(MAJOR_NUM, DEVICE_NAME, &fops); 
 197 
-198    /* Negative values signify an error */ 
-199    if (ret_val < 0) { 
-200        pr_alert("%s failed with %d\n", 
-201                 "Sorry, registering the character device ", ret_val); 
-202        return ret_val; 
+198    /* Negative values signify an error */ 
+199    if (ret_val < 0) { 
+200        pr_alert("%s failed with %d\n", 
+201                 "Sorry, registering the character device ", ret_val); 
+202        return ret_val; 
 203    } 
 204 
 205    cls = class_create(THIS_MODULE, DEVICE_FILE_NAME); 
 206    device_create(cls, NULL, MKDEV(MAJOR_NUM, 0), NULL, DEVICE_FILE_NAME); 
 207 
-208    pr_info("Device created on /dev/%s\n", DEVICE_FILE_NAME); 
+208    pr_info("Device created on /dev/%s\n", DEVICE_FILE_NAME); 
 209 
-210    return 0; 
+210    return 0; 
 211} 
 212 
-213/* Cleanup - unregister the appropriate file from /proc */ 
-214static void __exit chardev2_exit(void) 
+213/* Cleanup - unregister the appropriate file from /proc */ 
+214static void __exit chardev2_exit(void) 
 215{ 
 216    device_destroy(cls, MKDEV(MAJOR_NUM, 0)); 
 217    class_destroy(cls); 
 218 
-219    /* Unregister the device */ 
+219    /* Unregister the device */ 
 220    unregister_chrdev(MAJOR_NUM, DEVICE_NAME); 
 221} 
 222 
 223module_init(chardev2_init); 
 224module_exit(chardev2_exit); 
 225 
-226MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

+226MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

- 
1/* 
-2 * chardev.h - the header file with the ioctl definitions. 
-3 * 
-4 * The declarations here have to be in a header file, because they need 
-5 * to be known both to the kernel module (in chardev2.c) and the process 
-6 * calling ioctl() (in userspace_ioctl.c). 
-7 */ 
+   
1/* 
+2 * chardev.h - the header file with the ioctl definitions. 
+3 * 
+4 * The declarations here have to be in a header file, because they need 
+5 * to be known both to the kernel module (in chardev2.c) and the process 
+6 * calling ioctl() (in userspace_ioctl.c). 
+7 */ 
 8 
-9#ifndef CHARDEV_H 
-10#define CHARDEV_H 
+9#ifndef CHARDEV_H 
+10#define CHARDEV_H 
 11 
-12#include <linux/ioctl.h> 
+12#include <linux/ioctl.h> 
 13 
-14/* The major device number. We can not rely on dynamic registration 
-15 * any more, because ioctls need to know it. 
-16 */ 
-17#define MAJOR_NUM 100 
+14/* The major device number. We can not rely on dynamic registration 
+15 * any more, because ioctls need to know it. 
+16 */ 
+17#define MAJOR_NUM 100 
 18 
-19/* Set the message of the device driver */ 
-20#define IOCTL_SET_MSG _IOW(MAJOR_NUM, 0, char *) 
-21/* _IOW means that we are creating an ioctl command number for passing 
-22 * information from a user process to the kernel module. 
-23 * 
-24 * The first arguments, MAJOR_NUM, is the major device number we are using. 
-25 * 
-26 * The second argument is the number of the command (there could be several 
-27 * with different meanings). 
-28 * 
-29 * The third argument is the type we want to get from the process to the 
-30 * kernel. 
-31 */ 
+19/* Set the message of the device driver */ 
+20#define IOCTL_SET_MSG _IOW(MAJOR_NUM, 0, char *) 
+21/* _IOW means that we are creating an ioctl command number for passing 
+22 * information from a user process to the kernel module. 
+23 * 
+24 * The first arguments, MAJOR_NUM, is the major device number we are using. 
+25 * 
+26 * The second argument is the number of the command (there could be several 
+27 * with different meanings). 
+28 * 
+29 * The third argument is the type we want to get from the process to the 
+30 * kernel. 
+31 */ 
 32 
-33/* Get the message of the device driver */ 
-34#define IOCTL_GET_MSG _IOR(MAJOR_NUM, 1, char *) 
-35/* This IOCTL is used for output, to get the message of the device driver. 
-36 * However, we still need the buffer to place the message in to be input, 
-37 * as it is allocated by the process. 
-38 */ 
+33/* Get the message of the device driver */ 
+34#define IOCTL_GET_MSG _IOR(MAJOR_NUM, 1, char *) 
+35/* This IOCTL is used for output, to get the message of the device driver. 
+36 * However, we still need the buffer to place the message in to be input, 
+37 * as it is allocated by the process. 
+38 */ 
 39 
-40/* Get the n'th byte of the message */ 
-41#define IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE _IOWR(MAJOR_NUM, 2, int) 
-42/* The IOCTL is used for both input and output. It receives from the user 
-43 * a number, n, and returns message[n]. 
-44 */ 
+40/* Get the n'th byte of the message */ 
+41#define IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE _IOWR(MAJOR_NUM, 2, int) 
+42/* The IOCTL is used for both input and output. It receives from the user 
+43 * a number, n, and returns message[n]. 
+44 */ 
 45 
-46/* The name of the device file */ 
-47#define DEVICE_FILE_NAME "char_dev" 
-48#define DEVICE_PATH "/dev/char_dev" 
+46/* The name of the device file */ 
+47#define DEVICE_FILE_NAME "char_dev" 
+48#define DEVICE_PATH "/dev/char_dev" 
 49 
-50#endif

-                                                                  
-
-                                                                  
+50#endif

- 
1/*  userspace_ioctl.c - the process to use ioctl's to control the kernel module 
-2 * 
-3 *  Until now we could have used cat for input and output.  But now 
-4 *  we need to do ioctl's, which require writing our own process.  
-5 */ 
+   
1/*  userspace_ioctl.c - the process to use ioctl's to control the kernel module 
+2 * 
+3 *  Until now we could have used cat for input and output.  But now 
+4 *  we need to do ioctl's, which require writing our own process.  
+5 */ 
 6 
-7/* device specifics, such as ioctl numbers and the  
-8 * major device file. */ 
-9#include "../chardev.h" 
+7/* device specifics, such as ioctl numbers and the  
+8 * major device file. */ 
+9#include "../chardev.h" 
 10 
-11#include <stdio.h> /* standard I/O */ 
-12#include <fcntl.h> /* open */ 
-13#include <unistd.h> /* close */ 
-14#include <stdlib.h> /* exit */ 
-15#include <sys/ioctl.h> /* ioctl */ 
+11#include <stdio.h> /* standard I/O */ 
+12#include <fcntl.h> /* open */ 
+13#include <unistd.h> /* close */ 
+14#include <stdlib.h> /* exit */ 
+15#include <sys/ioctl.h> /* ioctl */ 
 16 
-17/* Functions for the ioctl calls */ 
+17/* Functions for the ioctl calls */ 
 18 
-19int ioctl_set_msg(int file_desc, char *message) 
+19int ioctl_set_msg(int file_desc, char *message) 
 20{ 
-21    int ret_val; 
+21    int ret_val; 
 22 
 23    ret_val = ioctl(file_desc, IOCTL_SET_MSG, message); 
 24 
-25    if (ret_val < 0) { 
-26        printf("ioctl_set_msg failed:%d\n", ret_val); 
+25    if (ret_val < 0) { 
+26        printf("ioctl_set_msg failed:%d\n", ret_val); 
 27    } 
 28 
-29    return ret_val; 
+29    return ret_val; 
 30} 
 31 
-32int ioctl_get_msg(int file_desc) 
+32int ioctl_get_msg(int file_desc) 
 33{ 
-34    int ret_val; 
-35    char message[100] = { 0 }; 
+34    int ret_val; 
+35    char message[100] = { 0 }; 
 36 
-37    /* Warning - this is dangerous because we don't tell  
-38   * the kernel how far it's allowed to write, so it  
-39   * might overflow the buffer. In a real production  
-40   * program, we would have used two ioctls - one to tell 
-41   * the kernel the buffer length and another to give  
-42   * it the buffer to fill 
-43   */ 
+37    /* Warning - this is dangerous because we don't tell  
+38   * the kernel how far it's allowed to write, so it  
+39   * might overflow the buffer. In a real production  
+40   * program, we would have used two ioctls - one to tell 
+41   * the kernel the buffer length and another to give  
+42   * it the buffer to fill 
+43   */ 
 44    ret_val = ioctl(file_desc, IOCTL_GET_MSG, message); 
 45 
-46    if (ret_val < 0) { 
-47        printf("ioctl_get_msg failed:%d\n", ret_val); 
+46    if (ret_val < 0) { 
+47        printf("ioctl_get_msg failed:%d\n", ret_val); 
 48    } 
-49    printf("get_msg message:%s", message); 
+49    printf("get_msg message:%s", message); 
 50 
-51    return ret_val; 
+51    return ret_val; 
 52} 
 53 
-54int ioctl_get_nth_byte(int file_desc) 
+54int ioctl_get_nth_byte(int file_desc) 
 55{ 
-56    int i, c; 
+56    int i, c; 
 57 
-58    printf("get_nth_byte message:"); 
+58    printf("get_nth_byte message:"); 
 59 
 60    i = 0; 
-61    do { 
+61    do { 
 62        c = ioctl(file_desc, IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE, i++); 
 63 
-64        if (c < 0) { 
-65            printf("\nioctl_get_nth_byte failed at the %d'th byte:\n", i); 
-66            return c; 
+64        if (c < 0) { 
+65            printf("\nioctl_get_nth_byte failed at the %d'th byte:\n", i); 
+66            return c; 
 67        } 
 68 
 69        putchar(c); 
-70    } while (c != 0); 
+70    } while (c != 0); 
 71 
-72    return 0; 
+72    return 0; 
 73} 
 74 
-75/* Main - Call the ioctl functions */ 
-76int main(void) 
+75/* Main - Call the ioctl functions */ 
+76int main(void) 
 77{ 
-78    int file_desc, ret_val; 
-79    char *msg = "Message passed by ioctl\n"; 
+78    int file_desc, ret_val; 
+79    char *msg = "Message passed by ioctl\n"; 
 80 
 81    file_desc = open(DEVICE_PATH, O_RDWR); 
-82    if (file_desc < 0) { 
-83        printf("Can't open device file: %s, error:%d\n", DEVICE_PATH, 
+82    if (file_desc < 0) { 
+83        printf("Can't open device file: %s, error:%d\n", DEVICE_PATH, 
 84               file_desc); 
 85        exit(EXIT_FAILURE); 
 86    } 
 87 
 88    ret_val = ioctl_set_msg(file_desc, msg); 
-89    if (ret_val) 
-90        goto error; 
+89    if (ret_val) 
+90        goto error; 
 91    ret_val = ioctl_get_nth_byte(file_desc); 
-92    if (ret_val) 
-93        goto error; 
+92    if (ret_val) 
+93        goto error; 
 94    ret_val = ioctl_get_msg(file_desc); 
-95    if (ret_val) 
-96        goto error; 
+95    if (ret_val) 
+96        goto error; 
 97 
 98    close(file_desc); 
-99    return 0; 
+99    return 0; 
 100error: 
 101    close(file_desc); 
 102    exit(EXIT_FAILURE); 
 103}

-

+

 

    
10    System Calls

-
So far, the only thing we’ve done was to use well defined kernel mechanisms to
+
So far, the only thing we’ve done was to use well defined kernel mechanisms to
 register /proc files and device handlers. This is fine if you want to do something the
 kernel programmers thought you’d want, such as write a device driver. But what if
+                                                                  
+
+                                                                  
 you want to do something unusual, to change the behavior of the system in some
 way? Then, you are mostly on your own.
-
   If you are not being sensible and using a virtual machine then this is where kernel
+
   If you are not being sensible and using a virtual machine then this is where kernel
 programming can become hazardous. While writing the example below, I killed the
  open()
  system call. This meant I could not open any files, I could not run any
@@ -3170,7 +3220,7 @@ ensure you do not lose any files, even within a test environment, please run
  right before you do the   insmod
  and the   rmmod
 .
-
   Forget about /proc files, forget about device files. They are just minor details.
+
   Forget about /proc files, forget about device files. They are just minor details.
 Minutiae in the vast expanse of the universe. The real process to kernel
 communication mechanism, the one used by all processes, is system calls. When a
 process requests a service from the kernel (such as opening a file, forking to a new
@@ -3179,22 +3229,19 @@ change the behaviour of the kernel in interesting ways, this is the place to do
 it. By the way, if you want to see which system calls a program uses, run
  strace <arguments>
 .
-
   In general, a process is not supposed to be able to access the kernel. It can not
+
   In general, a process is not supposed to be able to access the kernel. It can not
 access kernel memory and it can’t call kernel functions. The hardware of the CPU
 enforces this (that is the reason why it is called “protected mode” or “page
 protection”).
-
   System calls are an exception to this general rule. What happens is that the
+
   System calls are an exception to this general rule. What happens is that the
 process fills the registers with the appropriate values and then calls a special
 instruction which jumps to a previously defined location in the kernel (of course, that
 location is readable by user processes, it is not writable by them). Under Intel CPUs,
 this is done by means of interrupt 0x80. The hardware knows that once you jump to
 this location, you are no longer running in restricted user mode, but as the
-                                                                  
-
-                                                                  
 operating system kernel — and therefore you’re allowed to do whatever you
 want.
-
   The location in the kernel a process can jump to is called system_call. The
+
   The location in the kernel a process can jump to is called system_call. The
 procedure at that location checks the system call number, which tells the kernel what
 service the process requested. Then, it looks at the table of system calls
 (  sys_call_table
@@ -3204,7 +3251,10 @@ different process, if the process time ran out). If you want to read this code,
 at the source file arch/$(architecture)/kernel/entry.S, after the line
  ENTRY(system_call)
 .
-
   So, if we want to change the way a certain system call works, what we need to do
+
   So, if we want to change the way a certain system call works, what we need to do
+                                                                  
+
+                                                                  
 is to write our own function to implement it (usually by adding a bit of our own
 code, and then calling the original function) and then change the pointer at
  sys_call_table
@@ -3212,7 +3262,7 @@ code, and then calling the original function) and then change the pointer at
 don’t want to leave the system in an unstable state, it’s important for
  cleanup_module
  to restore the table to its original state.
-
   To modify the content of   sys_call_table
+
   To modify the content of   sys_call_table
 , we need to consider the control register. A control register is a processor
 register that changes or controls the general behavior of the CPU. For x86
 architecture, the cr0 register has various control flags that modify the basic
@@ -3225,11 +3275,11 @@ read-only sections Therefore, we must disable the 
   However,   sys_call_table
+
   However,   sys_call_table
  symbol is unexported to prevent misuse. But there have few ways to get the symbol, manual
 symbol lookup and   kallsyms_lookup_name
 . Here we use both depend on the kernel version.
-
   Because of the control-flow integrity, which is a technique to prevent the redirect
+
   Because of the control-flow integrity, which is a technique to prevent the redirect
 execution code from the attacker, for making sure that the indirect calls go to the
 expected addresses and the return addresses are not changed. Since Linux v5.7, the
 kernel patched the series of control-flow enforcement (CET) for x86, and some
@@ -3254,10 +3304,10 @@ COLLECT_GCC_OPTIONS='-v' '-Q' '-O2' '--help=target' '-mtune=generic' '-marc
  GNU C17 (Ubuntu 9.3.0-17ubuntu1~20.04) version 9.3.0 (x86_64-linux-gnu)
 ...
-

But CET should not be enabled in the kernel, it may break the Kprobes and bpf. +

But CET should not be enabled in the kernel, it may break the Kprobes and bpf. Consequently, CET is disabled since v5.11. To guarantee the manual symbol lookup worked, we only use up to v5.4. -

Unfortunately, since Linux v5.7 kallsyms_lookup_name +

Unfortunately, since Linux v5.7 kallsyms_lookup_name is also unexported, it needs certain trick to get the address of kallsyms_lookup_name . If CONFIG_KPROBES @@ -3269,7 +3319,7 @@ passes the addresses of the saved registers and the Kprobe struct to the handler you defined, then executes it. Kprobes can be registered by symbol name or address. Within the symbol name, the address will be handled by the kernel. -

Otherwise, specify the address of sys_call_table +

Otherwise, specify the address of sys_call_table from /proc/kallsyms and /boot/System.map into sym parameter. Following is the sample usage for /proc/kallsyms: @@ -3284,8 +3334,8 @@ ffffffff820013a0 R sys_call_table ffffffff820023e0 R ia32_sys_call_table $ sudo insmod syscall.ko sym=0xffffffff820013a0 -

-

Using the address from /boot/System.map, be careful about KASLR (Kernel +

+

Using the address from /boot/System.map, be careful about KASLR (Kernel Address Space Layout Randomization). KASLR may randomize the address of kernel code and data at every boot time, such as the static address listed in /boot/System.map will offset by some entropy. The purpose of KASLR is to protect @@ -3314,7 +3364,7 @@ ffffffff82000300 R sys_call_table $ sudo grep sys_call_table /proc/kallsyms ffffffff86400300 R sys_call_table -

If KASLR is enabled, we have to take care of the address from /proc/kallsyms each +

If KASLR is enabled, we have to take care of the address from /proc/kallsyms each time we reboot the machine. In order to use the address from /boot/System.map, make sure that KASLR is disabled. You can add the nokaslr for disabling KASLR in next booting time: @@ -3330,8 +3380,8 @@ $ grep quiet /etc/default/grub GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX_DEFAULT="quiet nokaslr splash" $ sudo update-grub -

-

For more information, check out the following: +

+

For more information, check out the following:

-

The source code here is an example of such a kernel module. We want to “spy” on a certain +

The source code here is an example of such a kernel module. We want to “spy” on a certain user, and to pr_info() a message whenever that user opens a file. Towards this end, we replace the system call to open a file with our own function, called @@ -3358,7 +3408,7 @@ spy on, it calls pr_info() to display the name of the file to be opened. Then, either way, it calls the original open() function with the same parameters, to actually open the file. -

The init_module +

The init_module function replaces the appropriate location in sys_call_table and keeps the original pointer in a variable. The @@ -3376,7 +3426,7 @@ with B_open , which will call what it thinks is the original system call, A_open , when it’s done. -

Now, if B is removed first, everything will be well — it will simply restore the system +

Now, if B is removed first, everything will be well — it will simply restore the system call to A_open , which calls the original. However, if A is removed and then B is removed, the system will crash. A’s removal will restore the system call to the original, @@ -3396,7 +3446,7 @@ problem. When A is removed, it sees that the system call was changed to will still try to call A_open which is no longer there, so that even without removing B the system would crash. -

Note that all the related problems make syscall stealing unfeasible for +

Note that all the related problems make syscall stealing unfeasible for production use. In order to keep people from doing potential harmful things sys_call_table is no longer exported. This means, if you want to do something more than a mere @@ -3408,226 +3458,226 @@ dry run of this example, you will have to patch your current kernel in order to exported.

- 
1/* 
-2 * syscall.c 
-3 * 
-4 * System call "stealing" sample. 
-5 * 
-6 * Disables page protection at a processor level by changing the 16th bit 
-7 * in the cr0 register (could be Intel specific). 
-8 * 
-9 * Based on example by Peter Jay Salzman and 
-10 * https://bbs.archlinux.org/viewtopic.php?id=139406 
-11 */ 
+   
1/* 
+2 * syscall.c 
+3 * 
+4 * System call "stealing" sample. 
+5 * 
+6 * Disables page protection at a processor level by changing the 16th bit 
+7 * in the cr0 register (could be Intel specific). 
+8 * 
+9 * Based on example by Peter Jay Salzman and 
+10 * https://bbs.archlinux.org/viewtopic.php?id=139406 
+11 */ 
 12 
-13#include <linux/delay.h> 
-14#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-15#include <linux/module.h> 
-16#include <linux/moduleparam.h> /* which will have params */ 
-17#include <linux/unistd.h> /* The list of system calls */ 
-18#include <linux/version.h> 
+13#include <linux/delay.h> 
+14#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+15#include <linux/module.h> 
+16#include <linux/moduleparam.h> /* which will have params */ 
+17#include <linux/unistd.h> /* The list of system calls */ 
+18#include <linux/version.h> 
 19 
-20/* For the current (process) structure, we need this to know who the 
-21 * current user is. 
-22 */ 
-23#include <linux/sched.h> 
-24#include <linux/uaccess.h> 
+20/* For the current (process) structure, we need this to know who the 
+21 * current user is. 
+22 */ 
+23#include <linux/sched.h> 
+24#include <linux/uaccess.h> 
 25 
-26/* The way we access "sys_call_table" varies as kernel internal changes. 
-27 * - Prior to v5.4 : manual symbol lookup 
-28 * - v5.5 to v5.6  : use kallsyms_lookup_name() 
-29 * - v5.7+         : Kprobes or specific kernel module parameter 
-30 */ 
+26/* The way we access "sys_call_table" varies as kernel internal changes. 
+27 * - Prior to v5.4 : manual symbol lookup 
+28 * - v5.5 to v5.6  : use kallsyms_lookup_name() 
+29 * - v5.7+         : Kprobes or specific kernel module parameter 
+30 */ 
 31 
-32/* The in-kernel calls to the ksys_close() syscall were removed in Linux v5.11+. 
-33 */ 
-34#if (LINUX_VERSION_CODE < KERNEL_VERSION(5, 7, 0)) 
+32/* The in-kernel calls to the ksys_close() syscall were removed in Linux v5.11+. 
+33 */ 
+34#if (LINUX_VERSION_CODE < KERNEL_VERSION(5, 7, 0)) 
 35 
-36#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE <= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 4, 0) 
-37#define HAVE_KSYS_CLOSE 1 
-38#include <linux/syscalls.h> /* For ksys_close() */ 
-39#else 
-40#include <linux/kallsyms.h> /* For kallsyms_lookup_name */ 
-41#endif 
+36#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE <= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 4, 0) 
+37#define HAVE_KSYS_CLOSE 1 
+38#include <linux/syscalls.h> /* For ksys_close() */ 
+39#else 
+40#include <linux/kallsyms.h> /* For kallsyms_lookup_name */ 
+41#endif 
 42 
-43#else 
+43#else 
 44 
-45#if defined(CONFIG_KPROBES) 
-46#define HAVE_KPROBES 1 
-47#include <linux/kprobes.h> 
-48#else 
-49#define HAVE_PARAM 1 
-50#include <linux/kallsyms.h> /* For sprint_symbol */ 
-51/* The address of the sys_call_table, which can be obtained with looking up 
-52 * "/boot/System.map" or "/proc/kallsyms". When the kernel version is v5.7+, 
-53 * without CONFIG_KPROBES, you can input the parameter or the module will look 
-54 * up all the memory. 
-55 */ 
-56static unsigned long sym = 0; 
+45#if defined(CONFIG_KPROBES) 
+46#define HAVE_KPROBES 1 
+47#include <linux/kprobes.h> 
+48#else 
+49#define HAVE_PARAM 1 
+50#include <linux/kallsyms.h> /* For sprint_symbol */ 
+51/* The address of the sys_call_table, which can be obtained with looking up 
+52 * "/boot/System.map" or "/proc/kallsyms". When the kernel version is v5.7+, 
+53 * without CONFIG_KPROBES, you can input the parameter or the module will look 
+54 * up all the memory. 
+55 */ 
+56static unsigned long sym = 0; 
 57module_param(sym, ulong, 0644); 
-58#endif /* CONFIG_KPROBES */ 
+58#endif /* CONFIG_KPROBES */ 
 59 
-60#endif /* Version < v5.7 */ 
+60#endif /* Version < v5.7 */ 
 61 
-62static unsigned long **sys_call_table; 
+62static unsigned long **sys_call_table; 
 63 
-64/* UID we want to spy on - will be filled from the command line. */ 
-65static int uid; 
-66module_param(uid, int, 0644); 
+64/* UID we want to spy on - will be filled from the command line. */ 
+65static int uid; 
+66module_param(uid, int, 0644); 
 67 
-68/* A pointer to the original system call. The reason we keep this, rather 
-69 * than call the original function (sys_open), is because somebody else 
-70 * might have replaced the system call before us. Note that this is not 
-71 * 100% safe, because if another module replaced sys_open before us, 
-72 * then when we are inserted, we will call the function in that module - 
-73 * and it might be removed before we are. 
-74 * 
-75 * Another reason for this is that we can not get sys_open. 
-76 * It is a static variable, so it is not exported. 
-77 */ 
-78static asmlinkage int (*original_call)(const char *, int, int); 
+68/* A pointer to the original system call. The reason we keep this, rather 
+69 * than call the original function (sys_open), is because somebody else 
+70 * might have replaced the system call before us. Note that this is not 
+71 * 100% safe, because if another module replaced sys_open before us, 
+72 * then when we are inserted, we will call the function in that module - 
+73 * and it might be removed before we are. 
+74 * 
+75 * Another reason for this is that we can not get sys_open. 
+76 * It is a static variable, so it is not exported. 
+77 */ 
+78static asmlinkage int (*original_call)(const char *, int, int); 
 79 
-80/* The function we will replace sys_open (the function called when you 
-81 * call the open system call) with. To find the exact prototype, with 
-82 * the number and type of arguments, we find the original function first 
-83 * (it is at fs/open.c). 
-84 * 
-85 * In theory, this means that we are tied to the current version of the 
-86 * kernel. In practice, the system calls almost never change (it would 
-87 * wreck havoc and require programs to be recompiled, since the system 
-88 * calls are the interface between the kernel and the processes). 
-89 */ 
-90static asmlinkage int our_sys_open(const char *filename, int flags, int mode) 
+80/* The function we will replace sys_open (the function called when you 
+81 * call the open system call) with. To find the exact prototype, with 
+82 * the number and type of arguments, we find the original function first 
+83 * (it is at fs/open.c). 
+84 * 
+85 * In theory, this means that we are tied to the current version of the 
+86 * kernel. In practice, the system calls almost never change (it would 
+87 * wreck havoc and require programs to be recompiled, since the system 
+88 * calls are the interface between the kernel and the processes). 
+89 */ 
+90static asmlinkage int our_sys_open(const char *filename, int flags, int mode) 
 91{ 
-92    int i = 0; 
-93    char ch; 
+92    int i = 0; 
+93    char ch; 
 94 
-95    /* Report the file, if relevant */ 
-96    pr_info("Opened file by %d: ", uid); 
-97    do { 
-98        get_user(ch, (char __user *)filename + i); 
+95    /* Report the file, if relevant */ 
+96    pr_info("Opened file by %d: ", uid); 
+97    do { 
+98        get_user(ch, (char __user *)filename + i); 
 99        i++; 
-100        pr_info("%c", ch); 
-101    } while (ch != 0); 
-102    pr_info("\n"); 
+100        pr_info("%c", ch); 
+101    } while (ch != 0); 
+102    pr_info("\n"); 
 103 
-104    /* Call the original sys_open - otherwise, we lose the ability to 
-105     * open files. 
-106     */ 
-107    return original_call(filename, flags, mode); 
+104    /* Call the original sys_open - otherwise, we lose the ability to 
+105     * open files. 
+106     */ 
+107    return original_call(filename, flags, mode); 
 108} 
 109 
-110static unsigned long **aquire_sys_call_table(void) 
+110static unsigned long **aquire_sys_call_table(void) 
 111{ 
-112#ifdef HAVE_KSYS_CLOSE 
-113    unsigned long int offset = PAGE_OFFSET; 
-114    unsigned long **sct; 
+112#ifdef HAVE_KSYS_CLOSE 
+113    unsigned long int offset = PAGE_OFFSET; 
+114    unsigned long **sct; 
 115 
-116    while (offset < ULLONG_MAX) { 
-117        sct = (unsigned long **)offset; 
+116    while (offset < ULLONG_MAX) { 
+117        sct = (unsigned long **)offset; 
 118 
-119        if (sct[__NR_close] == (unsigned long *)ksys_close) 
-120            return sct; 
+119        if (sct[__NR_close] == (unsigned long *)ksys_close) 
+120            return sct; 
 121 
-122        offset += sizeof(void *); 
+122        offset += sizeof(void *); 
 123    } 
 124 
-125    return NULL; 
-126#endif 
+125    return NULL; 
+126#endif 
 127 
-128#ifdef HAVE_PARAM 
-129    const char sct_name[15] = "sys_call_table"; 
-130    char symbol[40] = { 0 }; 
+128#ifdef HAVE_PARAM 
+129    const char sct_name[15] = "sys_call_table"; 
+130    char symbol[40] = { 0 }; 
 131 
-132    if (sym == 0) { 
-133        pr_alert("For Linux v5.7+, Kprobes is the preferable way to get " 
-134                 "symbol.\n"); 
-135        pr_info("If Kprobes is absent, you have to specify the address of " 
-136                "sys_call_table symbol\n"); 
-137        pr_info("by /boot/System.map or /proc/kallsyms, which contains all the " 
-138                "symbol addresses, into sym parameter.\n"); 
-139        return NULL; 
+132    if (sym == 0) { 
+133        pr_alert("For Linux v5.7+, Kprobes is the preferable way to get " 
+134                 "symbol.\n"); 
+135        pr_info("If Kprobes is absent, you have to specify the address of " 
+136                "sys_call_table symbol\n"); 
+137        pr_info("by /boot/System.map or /proc/kallsyms, which contains all the " 
+138                "symbol addresses, into sym parameter.\n"); 
+139        return NULL; 
 140    } 
 141    sprint_symbol(symbol, sym); 
-142    if (!strncmp(sct_name, symbol, sizeof(sct_name) - 1)) 
-143        return (unsigned long **)sym; 
+142    if (!strncmp(sct_name, symbol, sizeof(sct_name) - 1)) 
+143        return (unsigned long **)sym; 
 144 
-145    return NULL; 
-146#endif 
+145    return NULL; 
+146#endif 
 147 
-148#ifdef HAVE_KPROBES 
-149    unsigned long (*kallsyms_lookup_name)(const char *name); 
-150    struct kprobe kp = { 
-151        .symbol_name = "kallsyms_lookup_name", 
+148#ifdef HAVE_KPROBES 
+149    unsigned long (*kallsyms_lookup_name)(const char *name); 
+150    struct kprobe kp = { 
+151        .symbol_name = "kallsyms_lookup_name", 
 152    }; 
 153 
-154    if (register_kprobe(&kp) < 0) 
-155        return NULL; 
-156    kallsyms_lookup_name = (unsigned long (*)(const char *name))kp.addr; 
+154    if (register_kprobe(&kp) < 0) 
+155        return NULL; 
+156    kallsyms_lookup_name = (unsigned long (*)(const char *name))kp.addr; 
 157    unregister_kprobe(&kp); 
-158#endif 
+158#endif 
 159 
-160    return (unsigned long **)kallsyms_lookup_name("sys_call_table"); 
+160    return (unsigned long **)kallsyms_lookup_name("sys_call_table"); 
 161} 
 162 
-163#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 3, 0) 
-164static inline void __write_cr0(unsigned long cr0) 
+163#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 3, 0) 
+164static inline void __write_cr0(unsigned long cr0) 
 165{ 
-166    asm volatile("mov %0,%%cr0" : "+r"(cr0) : : "memory"); 
+166    asm volatile("mov %0,%%cr0" : "+r"(cr0) : : "memory"); 
 167} 
-168#else 
-169#define __write_cr0 write_cr0 
-170#endif 
+168#else 
+169#define __write_cr0 write_cr0 
+170#endif 
 171 
-172static void enable_write_protection(void) 
+172static void enable_write_protection(void) 
 173{ 
-174    unsigned long cr0 = read_cr0(); 
+174    unsigned long cr0 = read_cr0(); 
 175    set_bit(16, &cr0); 
 176    __write_cr0(cr0); 
 177} 
 178 
-179static void disable_write_protection(void) 
+179static void disable_write_protection(void) 
 180{ 
-181    unsigned long cr0 = read_cr0(); 
+181    unsigned long cr0 = read_cr0(); 
 182    clear_bit(16, &cr0); 
 183    __write_cr0(cr0); 
 184} 
 185 
-186static int __init syscall_start(void) 
+186static int __init syscall_start(void) 
 187{ 
-188    if (!(sys_call_table = aquire_sys_call_table())) 
-189        return -1; 
+188    if (!(sys_call_table = aquire_sys_call_table())) 
+189        return -1; 
 190 
 191    disable_write_protection(); 
 192 
-193    /* keep track of the original open function */ 
-194    original_call = (void *)sys_call_table[__NR_open]; 
+193    /* keep track of the original open function */ 
+194    original_call = (void *)sys_call_table[__NR_open]; 
 195 
-196    /* use our open function instead */ 
-197    sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *)our_sys_open; 
+196    /* use our open function instead */ 
+197    sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *)our_sys_open; 
 198 
 199    enable_write_protection(); 
 200 
-201    pr_info("Spying on UID:%d\n", uid); 
+201    pr_info("Spying on UID:%d\n", uid); 
 202 
-203    return 0; 
+203    return 0; 
 204} 
 205 
-206static void __exit syscall_end(void) 
+206static void __exit syscall_end(void) 
 207{ 
-208    if (!sys_call_table) 
-209        return; 
+208    if (!sys_call_table) 
+209        return; 
 210 
-211    /* Return the system call back to normal */ 
-212    if (sys_call_table[__NR_open] != (unsigned long *)our_sys_open) { 
-213        pr_alert("Somebody else also played with the "); 
-214        pr_alert("open system call\n"); 
-215        pr_alert("The system may be left in "); 
-216        pr_alert("an unstable state.\n"); 
+211    /* Return the system call back to normal */ 
+212    if (sys_call_table[__NR_open] != (unsigned long *)our_sys_open) { 
+213        pr_alert("Somebody else also played with the "); 
+214        pr_alert("open system call\n"); 
+215        pr_alert("The system may be left in "); 
+216        pr_alert("an unstable state.\n"); 
 217    } 
 218 
 219    disable_write_protection(); 
-220    sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *)original_call; 
+220    sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *)original_call; 
 221    enable_write_protection(); 
 222 
 223    msleep(2000); 
@@ -3636,14 +3686,14 @@ dry run of this example, you will have to patch your current kernel in order to
 226module_init(syscall_start); 
 227module_exit(syscall_end); 
 228 
-229MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

-

+229MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
+

11 Blocking Processes and threads

-

+

11.1 Sleep

-

What do you do when somebody asks you for something you can not do right +

What do you do when somebody asks you for something you can not do right away? If you are a human being and you are bothered by a human being, the only thing you can say is: "Not right now, I’m busy. Go away!". But if you are a kernel module and you are bothered by a process, you have another @@ -3651,21 +3701,21 @@ possibility. You can put the process to sleep until you can service it. After al processes are being put to sleep by the kernel and woken up all the time (that is the way multiple processes appear to run on the same time on a single CPU). -

This kernel module is an example of this. The file (called /proc/sleep) can only +

This kernel module is an example of this. The file (called /proc/sleep) can only be opened by a single process at a time. If the file is already open, the kernel module calls wait_event_interruptible . The easiest way to keep a file open is to open it with:

- 
1tail -f
-

This function changes the status of the task (a task is the kernel data structure + 

1tail -f
+

This function changes the status of the task (a task is the kernel data structure which holds information about a process and the system call it is in, if any) to TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE , which means that the task will not run until it is woken up somehow, and adds it to WaitQ, the queue of tasks waiting to access the file. Then, the function calls the scheduler to context switch to a different process, one which has some use for the CPU. -

When a process is done with the file, it closes it, and +

When a process is done with the file, it closes it, and module_close is called. That function wakes up all the processes in the queue (there’s no mechanism to only wake up one of them). It then returns and the process which just @@ -3678,31 +3728,31 @@ Eventually, one of the processes which was in the queue will be given control of the CPU by the scheduler. It starts at the point right after the call to module_interruptible_sleep_on . -

This means that the process is still in kernel mode - as far as the process +

This means that the process is still in kernel mode - as far as the process is concerned, it issued the open system call and the system call has not returned yet. The process does not know somebody else used the CPU for most of the time between the moment it issued the call and the moment it returned. -

It can then proceed to set a global variable to tell all the other processes that the +

It can then proceed to set a global variable to tell all the other processes that the file is still open and go on with its life. When the other processes get a piece of the CPU, they’ll see that global variable and go back to sleep. -

So we will use tail -f +

So we will use tail -f to keep the file open in the background, while trying to access it with another process (again in the background, so that we need not switch to a different vt). As soon as the first background process is killed with kill %1 , the second is woken up, is able to access the file and finally terminates. -

To make our life more interesting, module_close +

To make our life more interesting, module_close does not have a monopoly on waking up the processes which wait to access the file. A signal, such as Ctrl +c (SIGINT) can also wake up a process. This is because we used module_interruptible_sleep_on . We could have used module_sleep_on instead, but that would have resulted in extremely angry users whose Ctrl+c’s are ignored. -

In that case, we want to return with +

In that case, we want to return with -EINTR immediately. This is important so users can, for example, kill the process before it receives the file. -

There is one more point to remember. Some times processes don’t want to sleep, they want +

There is one more point to remember. Some times processes don’t want to sleep, they want either to get what they want immediately, or to be told it cannot be done. Such processes use the O_NONBLOCK flag when opening the file. The kernel is supposed to respond by returning with the error @@ -3738,449 +3788,449 @@ $ cat_nonblock /proc/sleep Last input: $ -

+

- 
1/* 
-2 * sleep.c - create a /proc file, and if several processes try to open it 
-3 * at the same time, put all but one to sleep. 
-4 */ 
+   
1/* 
+2 * sleep.c - create a /proc file, and if several processes try to open it 
+3 * at the same time, put all but one to sleep. 
+4 */ 
 5 
-6#include <linux/kernel.h> /* We're doing kernel work */ 
-7#include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */ 
-8#include <linux/proc_fs.h> /* Necessary because we use proc fs */ 
-9#include <linux/sched.h> /* For putting processes to sleep and 
-10                                   waking them up */  
-11#include <linux/uaccess.h> /* for get_user and put_user */ 
-12#include <linux/version.h> 
+6#include <linux/kernel.h> /* We're doing kernel work */ 
+7#include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */ 
+8#include <linux/proc_fs.h> /* Necessary because we use proc fs */ 
+9#include <linux/sched.h> /* For putting processes to sleep and 
+10                                   waking them up */  
+11#include <linux/uaccess.h> /* for get_user and put_user */ 
+12#include <linux/version.h> 
 13 
-14#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 6, 0) 
-15#define HAVE_PROC_OPS 
-16#endif 
+14#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 6, 0) 
+15#define HAVE_PROC_OPS 
+16#endif 
 17 
-18/* Here we keep the last message received, to prove that we can process our 
-19 * input. 
-20 */ 
-21#define MESSAGE_LENGTH 80 
-22static char message[MESSAGE_LENGTH]; 
+18/* Here we keep the last message received, to prove that we can process our 
+19 * input. 
+20 */ 
+21#define MESSAGE_LENGTH 80 
+22static char message[MESSAGE_LENGTH]; 
 23 
-24static struct proc_dir_entry *our_proc_file; 
-25#define PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME "sleep" 
+24static struct proc_dir_entry *our_proc_file; 
+25#define PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME "sleep" 
 26 
-27/* Since we use the file operations struct, we can't use the special proc 
-28 * output provisions - we have to use a standard read function, which is this 
-29 * function. 
-30 */ 
-31static ssize_t module_output(struct file *file, /* see include/linux/fs.h   */ 
-32                             char __user *buf, /* The buffer to put data to 
-33                                                   (in the user segment)    */  
-34                             size_t len, /* The length of the buffer */ 
+27/* Since we use the file operations struct, we can't use the special proc 
+28 * output provisions - we have to use a standard read function, which is this 
+29 * function. 
+30 */ 
+31static ssize_t module_output(struct file *file, /* see include/linux/fs.h   */ 
+32                             char __user *buf, /* The buffer to put data to 
+33                                                   (in the user segment)    */  
+34                             size_t len, /* The length of the buffer */ 
 35                             loff_t *offset) 
 36{ 
-37    static int finished = 0; 
-38    int i; 
-39    char output_msg[MESSAGE_LENGTH + 30]; 
+37    static int finished = 0; 
+38    int i; 
+39    char output_msg[MESSAGE_LENGTH + 30]; 
 40 
-41    /* Return 0 to signify end of file - that we have nothing more to say 
-42     * at this point. 
-43     */ 
-44    if (finished) { 
+41    /* Return 0 to signify end of file - that we have nothing more to say 
+42     * at this point. 
+43     */ 
+44    if (finished) { 
 45        finished = 0; 
-46        return 0; 
+46        return 0; 
 47    } 
 48 
-49    sprintf(output_msg, "Last input:%s\n", message); 
-50    for (i = 0; i < len && output_msg[i]; i++) 
+49    sprintf(output_msg, "Last input:%s\n", message); 
+50    for (i = 0; i < len && output_msg[i]; i++) 
 51        put_user(output_msg[i], buf + i); 
 52 
 53    finished = 1; 
-54    return i; /* Return the number of bytes "read" */ 
+54    return i; /* Return the number of bytes "read" */ 
 55} 
 56 
-57/* This function receives input from the user when the user writes to the 
-58 * /proc file. 
-59 */ 
-60static ssize_t module_input(struct file *file, /* The file itself */ 
-61                            const char __user *buf, /* The buffer with input */ 
-62                            size_t length, /* The buffer's length */ 
-63                            loff_t *offset) /* offset to file - ignore */ 
+57/* This function receives input from the user when the user writes to the 
+58 * /proc file. 
+59 */ 
+60static ssize_t module_input(struct file *file, /* The file itself */ 
+61                            const char __user *buf, /* The buffer with input */ 
+62                            size_t length, /* The buffer's length */ 
+63                            loff_t *offset) /* offset to file - ignore */ 
 64{ 
-65    int i; 
+65    int i; 
 66 
-67    /* Put the input into Message, where module_output will later be able 
-68     * to use it. 
-69     */ 
-70    for (i = 0; i < MESSAGE_LENGTH - 1 && i < length; i++) 
+67    /* Put the input into Message, where module_output will later be able 
+68     * to use it. 
+69     */ 
+70    for (i = 0; i < MESSAGE_LENGTH - 1 && i < length; i++) 
 71        get_user(message[i], buf + i); 
-72    /* we want a standard, zero terminated string */ 
-73    message[i] = '\0'; 
+72    /* we want a standard, zero terminated string */ 
+73    message[i] = '\0'; 
 74 
-75    /* We need to return the number of input characters used */ 
-76    return i; 
+75    /* We need to return the number of input characters used */ 
+76    return i; 
 77} 
 78 
-79/* 1 if the file is currently open by somebody */ 
-80static atomic_t already_open = ATOMIC_INIT(0); 
+79/* 1 if the file is currently open by somebody */ 
+80static atomic_t already_open = ATOMIC_INIT(0); 
 81 
-82/* Queue of processes who want our file */ 
-83static DECLARE_WAIT_QUEUE_HEAD(waitq); 
+82/* Queue of processes who want our file */ 
+83static DECLARE_WAIT_QUEUE_HEAD(waitq); 
 84 
-85/* Called when the /proc file is opened */ 
-86static int module_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+85/* Called when the /proc file is opened */ 
+86static int module_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
 87{ 
-88    /* If the file's flags include O_NONBLOCK, it means the process does not 
-89     * want to wait for the file. In this case, if the file is already open, 
-90     * we should fail with -EAGAIN, meaning "you will have to try again", 
-91     * instead of blocking a process which would rather stay awake. 
-92     */ 
-93    if ((file->f_flags & O_NONBLOCK) && atomic_read(&already_open)) 
-94        return -EAGAIN; 
+88    /* If the file's flags include O_NONBLOCK, it means the process does not 
+89     * want to wait for the file. In this case, if the file is already open, 
+90     * we should fail with -EAGAIN, meaning "you will have to try again", 
+91     * instead of blocking a process which would rather stay awake. 
+92     */ 
+93    if ((file->f_flags & O_NONBLOCK) && atomic_read(&already_open)) 
+94        return -EAGAIN; 
 95 
-96    /* This is the correct place for try_module_get(THIS_MODULE) because if 
-97     * a process is in the loop, which is within the kernel module, 
-98     * the kernel module must not be removed. 
-99     */ 
+96    /* This is the correct place for try_module_get(THIS_MODULE) because if 
+97     * a process is in the loop, which is within the kernel module, 
+98     * the kernel module must not be removed. 
+99     */ 
 100    try_module_get(THIS_MODULE); 
 101 
-102    while (atomic_cmpxchg(&already_open, 0, 1)) { 
-103        int i, is_sig = 0; 
+102    while (atomic_cmpxchg(&already_open, 0, 1)) { 
+103        int i, is_sig = 0; 
 104 
-105        /* This function puts the current process, including any system 
-106         * calls, such as us, to sleep.  Execution will be resumed right 
-107         * after the function call, either because somebody called 
-108         * wake_up(&waitq) (only module_close does that, when the file 
-109         * is closed) or when a signal, such as Ctrl-C, is sent 
-110         * to the process 
-111         */ 
+105        /* This function puts the current process, including any system 
+106         * calls, such as us, to sleep.  Execution will be resumed right 
+107         * after the function call, either because somebody called 
+108         * wake_up(&waitq) (only module_close does that, when the file 
+109         * is closed) or when a signal, such as Ctrl-C, is sent 
+110         * to the process 
+111         */ 
 112        wait_event_interruptible(waitq, !atomic_read(&already_open)); 
 113 
-114        /* If we woke up because we got a signal we're not blocking, 
-115         * return -EINTR (fail the system call).  This allows processes 
-116         * to be killed or stopped. 
-117         */ 
-118        for (i = 0; i < _NSIG_WORDS && !is_sig; i++) 
+114        /* If we woke up because we got a signal we're not blocking, 
+115         * return -EINTR (fail the system call).  This allows processes 
+116         * to be killed or stopped. 
+117         */ 
+118        for (i = 0; i < _NSIG_WORDS && !is_sig; i++) 
 119            is_sig = current->pending.signal.sig[i] & ~current->blocked.sig[i]; 
 120 
-121        if (is_sig) { 
-122            /* It is important to put module_put(THIS_MODULE) here, because 
-123             * for processes where the open is interrupted there will never 
-124             * be a corresponding close. If we do not decrement the usage 
-125             * count here, we will be left with a positive usage count 
-126             * which we will have no way to bring down to zero, giving us 
-127             * an immortal module, which can only be killed by rebooting 
-128             * the machine. 
-129             */ 
+121        if (is_sig) { 
+122            /* It is important to put module_put(THIS_MODULE) here, because 
+123             * for processes where the open is interrupted there will never 
+124             * be a corresponding close. If we do not decrement the usage 
+125             * count here, we will be left with a positive usage count 
+126             * which we will have no way to bring down to zero, giving us 
+127             * an immortal module, which can only be killed by rebooting 
+128             * the machine. 
+129             */ 
 130            module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
-131            return -EINTR; 
+131            return -EINTR; 
 132        } 
 133    } 
 134 
-135    return 0; /* Allow the access */ 
+135    return 0; /* Allow the access */ 
 136} 
 137 
-138/* Called when the /proc file is closed */ 
-139static int module_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+138/* Called when the /proc file is closed */ 
+139static int module_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
 140{ 
-141    /* Set already_open to zero, so one of the processes in the waitq will 
-142     * be able to set already_open back to one and to open the file. All 
-143     * the other processes will be called when already_open is back to one, 
-144     * so they'll go back to sleep. 
-145     */ 
+141    /* Set already_open to zero, so one of the processes in the waitq will 
+142     * be able to set already_open back to one and to open the file. All 
+143     * the other processes will be called when already_open is back to one, 
+144     * so they'll go back to sleep. 
+145     */ 
 146    atomic_set(&already_open, 0); 
 147 
-148    /* Wake up all the processes in waitq, so if anybody is waiting for the 
-149     * file, they can have it. 
-150     */ 
+148    /* Wake up all the processes in waitq, so if anybody is waiting for the 
+149     * file, they can have it. 
+150     */ 
 151    wake_up(&waitq); 
 152 
 153    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
 154 
-155    return 0; /* success */ 
+155    return 0; /* success */ 
 156} 
 157 
-158/* Structures to register as the /proc file, with pointers to all the relevant 
-159 * functions. 
-160 */ 
+158/* Structures to register as the /proc file, with pointers to all the relevant 
+159 * functions. 
+160 */ 
 161 
-162/* File operations for our proc file. This is where we place pointers to all 
-163 * the functions called when somebody tries to do something to our file. NULL 
-164 * means we don't want to deal with something. 
-165 */ 
-166#ifdef HAVE_PROC_OPS 
-167static const struct proc_ops file_ops_4_our_proc_file = { 
-168    .proc_read = module_output, /* "read" from the file */ 
-169    .proc_write = module_input, /* "write" to the file */ 
-170    .proc_open = module_open, /* called when the /proc file is opened */ 
-171    .proc_release = module_close, /* called when it's closed */ 
+162/* File operations for our proc file. This is where we place pointers to all 
+163 * the functions called when somebody tries to do something to our file. NULL 
+164 * means we don't want to deal with something. 
+165 */ 
+166#ifdef HAVE_PROC_OPS 
+167static const struct proc_ops file_ops_4_our_proc_file = { 
+168    .proc_read = module_output, /* "read" from the file */ 
+169    .proc_write = module_input, /* "write" to the file */ 
+170    .proc_open = module_open, /* called when the /proc file is opened */ 
+171    .proc_release = module_close, /* called when it's closed */ 
 172}; 
-173#else 
-174static const struct file_operations file_ops_4_our_proc_file = { 
+173#else 
+174static const struct file_operations file_ops_4_our_proc_file = { 
 175    .read = module_output, 
 176    .write = module_input, 
 177    .open = module_open, 
 178    .release = module_close, 
 179}; 
-180#endif 
+180#endif 
 181 
-182/* Initialize the module - register the proc file */ 
-183static int __init sleep_init(void) 
+182/* Initialize the module - register the proc file */ 
+183static int __init sleep_init(void) 
 184{ 
 185    our_proc_file = 
 186        proc_create(PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME, 0644, NULL, &file_ops_4_our_proc_file); 
-187    if (our_proc_file == NULL) { 
+187    if (our_proc_file == NULL) { 
 188        remove_proc_entry(PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME, NULL); 
-189        pr_debug("Error: Could not initialize /proc/%s\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
-190        return -ENOMEM; 
+189        pr_debug("Error: Could not initialize /proc/%s\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
+190        return -ENOMEM; 
 191    } 
 192    proc_set_size(our_proc_file, 80); 
 193    proc_set_user(our_proc_file, GLOBAL_ROOT_UID, GLOBAL_ROOT_GID); 
 194 
-195    pr_info("/proc/%s created\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
+195    pr_info("/proc/%s created\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
 196 
-197    return 0; 
+197    return 0; 
 198} 
 199 
-200/* Cleanup - unregister our file from /proc.  This could get dangerous if 
-201 * there are still processes waiting in waitq, because they are inside our 
-202 * open function, which will get unloaded. I'll explain how to avoid removal 
-203 * of a kernel module in such a case in chapter 10. 
-204 */ 
-205static void __exit sleep_exit(void) 
+200/* Cleanup - unregister our file from /proc.  This could get dangerous if 
+201 * there are still processes waiting in waitq, because they are inside our 
+202 * open function, which will get unloaded. I'll explain how to avoid removal 
+203 * of a kernel module in such a case in chapter 10. 
+204 */ 
+205static void __exit sleep_exit(void) 
 206{ 
 207    remove_proc_entry(PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME, NULL); 
-208    pr_debug("/proc/%s removed\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
+208    pr_debug("/proc/%s removed\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
 209} 
 210 
 211module_init(sleep_init); 
 212module_exit(sleep_exit); 
 213 
-214MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

+214MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

- 
1/* 
-2 *  cat_nonblock.c - open a file and display its contents, but exit rather than 
-3 *  wait for input. 
-4 */ 
-5#include <errno.h> /* for errno */ 
-6#include <fcntl.h> /* for open */ 
-7#include <stdio.h> /* standard I/O */ 
-8#include <stdlib.h> /* for exit */ 
-9#include <unistd.h> /* for read */ 
+   
1/* 
+2 *  cat_nonblock.c - open a file and display its contents, but exit rather than 
+3 *  wait for input. 
+4 */ 
+5#include <errno.h> /* for errno */ 
+6#include <fcntl.h> /* for open */ 
+7#include <stdio.h> /* standard I/O */ 
+8#include <stdlib.h> /* for exit */ 
+9#include <unistd.h> /* for read */ 
 10 
-11#define MAX_BYTES 1024 * 4 
+11#define MAX_BYTES 1024 * 4 
 12 
-13int main(int argc, char *argv[]) 
+13int main(int argc, char *argv[]) 
 14{ 
-15    int fd; /* The file descriptor for the file to read */ 
-16    size_t bytes; /* The number of bytes read */ 
-17    char buffer[MAX_BYTES]; /* The buffer for the bytes */ 
+15    int fd; /* The file descriptor for the file to read */ 
+16    size_t bytes; /* The number of bytes read */ 
+17    char buffer[MAX_BYTES]; /* The buffer for the bytes */ 
 18 
-19    /* Usage */ 
-20    if (argc != 2) { 
-21        printf("Usage: %s <filename>\n", argv[0]); 
-22        puts("Reads the content of a file, but doesn't wait for input"); 
+19    /* Usage */ 
+20    if (argc != 2) { 
+21        printf("Usage: %s <filename>\n", argv[0]); 
+22        puts("Reads the content of a file, but doesn't wait for input"); 
 23        exit(-1); 
 24    } 
 25 
-26    /* Open the file for reading in non blocking mode */ 
+26    /* Open the file for reading in non blocking mode */ 
 27    fd = open(argv[1], O_RDONLY | O_NONBLOCK); 
 28 
-29    /* If open failed */ 
-30    if (fd == -1) { 
-31        puts(errno == EAGAIN ? "Open would block" : "Open failed"); 
+29    /* If open failed */ 
+30    if (fd == -1) { 
+31        puts(errno == EAGAIN ? "Open would block" : "Open failed"); 
 32        exit(-1); 
 33    } 
 34 
-35    /* Read the file and output its contents */ 
-36    do { 
-37        /* Read characters from the file */ 
+35    /* Read the file and output its contents */ 
+36    do { 
+37        /* Read characters from the file */ 
 38        bytes = read(fd, buffer, MAX_BYTES); 
 39 
-40        /* If there's an error, report it and die */ 
-41        if (bytes == -1) { 
-42            if (errno == EAGAIN) 
-43                puts("Normally I'd block, but you told me not to"); 
-44            else 
-45                puts("Another read error"); 
+40        /* If there's an error, report it and die */ 
+41        if (bytes == -1) { 
+42            if (errno == EAGAIN) 
+43                puts("Normally I'd block, but you told me not to"); 
+44            else 
+45                puts("Another read error"); 
 46            exit(-1); 
 47        } 
 48 
-49        /* Print the characters */ 
-50        if (bytes > 0) { 
-51            for (int i = 0; i < bytes; i++) 
+49        /* Print the characters */ 
+50        if (bytes > 0) { 
+51            for (int i = 0; i < bytes; i++) 
 52                putchar(buffer[i]); 
 53        } 
 54 
-55        /* While there are no errors and the file isn't over */ 
-56    } while (bytes > 0); 
+55        /* While there are no errors and the file isn't over */ 
+56    } while (bytes > 0); 
 57 
-58    return 0; 
+58    return 0; 
 59}

-

+

 

    
11.2    Completions

-
Sometimes one thing should happen before another within a module having multiple threads.
+
Sometimes one thing should happen before another within a module having multiple threads.
 Rather than using   /bin/sleep
  commands, the kernel has another way to do this which allows timeouts or
 interrupts to also happen.
-
   In the following example two threads are started, but one needs to start before
+
   In the following example two threads are started, but one needs to start before
 another.
 

                                                                   
 
                                                                   
 

-   
1/* 
-2 * completions.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/completion.h> 
-5#include <linux/init.h> 
-6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-7#include <linux/kthread.h> 
-8#include <linux/module.h> 
+   
1/* 
+2 * completions.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/completion.h> 
+5#include <linux/init.h> 
+6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+7#include <linux/kthread.h> 
+8#include <linux/module.h> 
 9 
-10static struct { 
-11    struct completion crank_comp; 
-12    struct completion flywheel_comp; 
+10static struct { 
+11    struct completion crank_comp; 
+12    struct completion flywheel_comp; 
 13} machine; 
 14 
-15static int machine_crank_thread(void *arg) 
+15static int machine_crank_thread(void *arg) 
 16{ 
-17    pr_info("Turn the crank\n"); 
+17    pr_info("Turn the crank\n"); 
 18 
 19    complete_all(&machine.crank_comp); 
 20    complete_and_exit(&machine.crank_comp, 0); 
 21} 
 22 
-23static int machine_flywheel_spinup_thread(void *arg) 
+23static int machine_flywheel_spinup_thread(void *arg) 
 24{ 
 25    wait_for_completion(&machine.crank_comp); 
 26 
-27    pr_info("Flywheel spins up\n"); 
+27    pr_info("Flywheel spins up\n"); 
 28 
 29    complete_all(&machine.flywheel_comp); 
 30    complete_and_exit(&machine.flywheel_comp, 0); 
 31} 
 32 
-33static int completions_init(void) 
+33static int completions_init(void) 
 34{ 
-35    struct task_struct *crank_thread; 
-36    struct task_struct *flywheel_thread; 
+35    struct task_struct *crank_thread; 
+36    struct task_struct *flywheel_thread; 
 37 
-38    pr_info("completions example\n"); 
+38    pr_info("completions example\n"); 
 39 
 40    init_completion(&machine.crank_comp); 
 41    init_completion(&machine.flywheel_comp); 
 42 
-43    crank_thread = kthread_create(machine_crank_thread, NULL, "KThread Crank"); 
-44    if (IS_ERR(crank_thread)) 
-45        goto ERROR_THREAD_1; 
+43    crank_thread = kthread_create(machine_crank_thread, NULL, "KThread Crank"); 
+44    if (IS_ERR(crank_thread)) 
+45        goto ERROR_THREAD_1; 
 46 
 47    flywheel_thread = kthread_create(machine_flywheel_spinup_thread, NULL, 
-48                                     "KThread Flywheel"); 
-49    if (IS_ERR(flywheel_thread)) 
-50        goto ERROR_THREAD_2; 
+48                                     "KThread Flywheel"); 
+49    if (IS_ERR(flywheel_thread)) 
+50        goto ERROR_THREAD_2; 
 51 
 52    wake_up_process(flywheel_thread); 
 53    wake_up_process(crank_thread); 
 54 
-55    return 0; 
+55    return 0; 
 56 
 57ERROR_THREAD_2: 
 58    kthread_stop(crank_thread); 
 59ERROR_THREAD_1: 
 60 
-61    return -1; 
+61    return -1; 
 62} 
 63 
-64static void completions_exit(void) 
+64static void completions_exit(void) 
 65{ 
 66    wait_for_completion(&machine.crank_comp); 
 67    wait_for_completion(&machine.flywheel_comp); 
 68 
-69    pr_info("completions exit\n"); 
+69    pr_info("completions exit\n"); 
 70} 
 71 
 72module_init(completions_init); 
 73module_exit(completions_exit); 
 74 
-75MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Completions example"); 
-76MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

-
   The   machine
+75MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Completions example"); 
+76MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

+
   The   machine
  structure stores the completion states for the two threads. At the exit
 point of each thread the respective completion state is updated, and
  wait_for_completion
  is used by the flywheel thread to ensure that it does not begin prematurely.
-
   So even though   flywheel_thread
+
   So even though   flywheel_thread
  is started first you should notice if you load this module and run
  dmesg
  that turning the crank always happens first because the flywheel thread waits for it
 to complete.
-
   There are other variations upon the
+
   There are other variations upon the
  wait_for_completion
  function, which include timeouts or being interrupted, but this basic mechanism is
 enough for many common situations without adding a lot of complexity.
-

+

 

    
12    Avoiding Collisions and Deadlocks

-
If processes running on different CPUs or in different threads try to access the same
+
If processes running on different CPUs or in different threads try to access the same
 memory, then it is possible that strange things can happen or your system can lock
 up. To avoid this, various types of mutual exclusion kernel functions are available.
 These indicate if a section of code is "locked" or "unlocked" so that simultaneous
 attempts to run it can not happen.
 

    
12.1    Mutex

-
You can use kernel mutexes (mutual exclusions) in much the same manner that you
+
You can use kernel mutexes (mutual exclusions) in much the same manner that you
 might deploy them in userland. This may be all that is needed to avoid collisions in
 most cases.
 

 

-   
1/* 
-2 * example_mutex.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/init.h> 
-5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-6#include <linux/module.h> 
-7#include <linux/mutex.h> 
+   
1/* 
+2 * example_mutex.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/init.h> 
+5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+6#include <linux/module.h> 
+7#include <linux/mutex.h> 
 8 
-9static DEFINE_MUTEX(mymutex); 
+9static DEFINE_MUTEX(mymutex); 
 10 
-11static int example_mutex_init(void) 
+11static int example_mutex_init(void) 
 12{ 
-13    int ret; 
+13    int ret; 
 14 
-15    pr_info("example_mutex init\n"); 
+15    pr_info("example_mutex init\n"); 
 16 
 17    ret = mutex_trylock(&mymutex); 
-18    if (ret != 0) { 
-19        pr_info("mutex is locked\n"); 
+18    if (ret != 0) { 
+19        pr_info("mutex is locked\n"); 
 20 
-21        if (mutex_is_locked(&mymutex) == 0) 
-22            pr_info("The mutex failed to lock!\n"); 
+21        if (mutex_is_locked(&mymutex) == 0) 
+22            pr_info("The mutex failed to lock!\n"); 
 23 
 24        mutex_unlock(&mymutex); 
-25        pr_info("mutex is unlocked\n"); 
-26    } else 
-27        pr_info("Failed to lock\n"); 
+25        pr_info("mutex is unlocked\n"); 
+26    } else 
+27        pr_info("Failed to lock\n"); 
 28 
-29    return 0; 
+29    return 0; 
 30} 
 31 
-32static void example_mutex_exit(void) 
+32static void example_mutex_exit(void) 
 33{ 
-34    pr_info("example_mutex exit\n"); 
+34    pr_info("example_mutex exit\n"); 
 35} 
 36 
 37module_init(example_mutex_init); 
 38module_exit(example_mutex_exit); 
 39 
-40MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Mutex example"); 
-41MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

-

+40MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Mutex example"); 
+41MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

+

 

    
12.2    Spinlocks

-
As the name suggests, spinlocks lock up the CPU that the code is running on,
+
As the name suggests, spinlocks lock up the CPU that the code is running on,
 taking 100% of its resources. Because of this you should only use the spinlock
                                                                   
 
@@ -4188,79 +4238,79 @@ taking 100% of its resources. Because of this you should only use the spinlock
 mechanism around code which is likely to take no more than a few milliseconds to
 run and so will not noticeably slow anything down from the user’s point of
 view.
-
   The example here is "irq safe" in that if interrupts happen during the lock then
+
   The example here is "irq safe" in that if interrupts happen during the lock then
 they will not be forgotten and will activate when the unlock happens, using the
  flags
  variable to retain their state.
 

 

-   
1/* 
-2 * example_spinlock.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/init.h> 
-5#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-7#include <linux/module.h> 
-8#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
+   
1/* 
+2 * example_spinlock.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/init.h> 
+5#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
+8#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
 9 
-10static DEFINE_SPINLOCK(sl_static); 
-11static spinlock_t sl_dynamic; 
+10static DEFINE_SPINLOCK(sl_static); 
+11static spinlock_t sl_dynamic; 
 12 
-13static void example_spinlock_static(void) 
+13static void example_spinlock_static(void) 
 14{ 
-15    unsigned long flags; 
+15    unsigned long flags; 
 16 
 17    spin_lock_irqsave(&sl_static, flags); 
-18    pr_info("Locked static spinlock\n"); 
+18    pr_info("Locked static spinlock\n"); 
 19 
-20    /* Do something or other safely. Because this uses 100% CPU time, this 
-21     * code should take no more than a few milliseconds to run. 
-22     */ 
+20    /* Do something or other safely. Because this uses 100% CPU time, this 
+21     * code should take no more than a few milliseconds to run. 
+22     */ 
 23 
 24    spin_unlock_irqrestore(&sl_static, flags); 
-25    pr_info("Unlocked static spinlock\n"); 
+25    pr_info("Unlocked static spinlock\n"); 
 26} 
 27 
-28static void example_spinlock_dynamic(void) 
+28static void example_spinlock_dynamic(void) 
 29{ 
-30    unsigned long flags; 
+30    unsigned long flags; 
 31 
 32    spin_lock_init(&sl_dynamic); 
 33    spin_lock_irqsave(&sl_dynamic, flags); 
-34    pr_info("Locked dynamic spinlock\n"); 
+34    pr_info("Locked dynamic spinlock\n"); 
 35 
-36    /* Do something or other safely. Because this uses 100% CPU time, this 
-37     * code should take no more than a few milliseconds to run. 
-38     */ 
+36    /* Do something or other safely. Because this uses 100% CPU time, this 
+37     * code should take no more than a few milliseconds to run. 
+38     */ 
 39 
 40    spin_unlock_irqrestore(&sl_dynamic, flags); 
-41    pr_info("Unlocked dynamic spinlock\n"); 
+41    pr_info("Unlocked dynamic spinlock\n"); 
 42} 
 43 
-44static int example_spinlock_init(void) 
+44static int example_spinlock_init(void) 
 45{ 
-46    pr_info("example spinlock started\n"); 
+46    pr_info("example spinlock started\n"); 
 47 
 48    example_spinlock_static(); 
 49    example_spinlock_dynamic(); 
 50 
-51    return 0; 
+51    return 0; 
 52} 
 53 
-54static void example_spinlock_exit(void) 
+54static void example_spinlock_exit(void) 
 55{ 
-56    pr_info("example spinlock exit\n"); 
+56    pr_info("example spinlock exit\n"); 
 57} 
 58 
 59module_init(example_spinlock_init); 
 60module_exit(example_spinlock_exit); 
 61 
-62MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Spinlock example"); 
-63MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

-

+62MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Spinlock example"); 
+63MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

+

 

    
12.3    Read and write locks

-
Read and write locks are specialised kinds of spinlocks so that you can exclusively
+
Read and write locks are specialised kinds of spinlocks so that you can exclusively
 read from something or write to something. Like the earlier spinlocks example, the
 one below shows an "irq safe" situation in which if other functions were triggered
 from irqs which might also read and write to whatever you are concerned with
@@ -4270,69 +4320,69 @@ the system and cause users to start revolting against the tyranny of your
 module.
 

 

-   
1/* 
-2 * example_rwlock.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-6#include <linux/module.h> 
+   
1/* 
+2 * example_rwlock.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+6#include <linux/module.h> 
 7 
-8static DEFINE_RWLOCK(myrwlock); 
+8static DEFINE_RWLOCK(myrwlock); 
 9 
-10static void example_read_lock(void) 
+10static void example_read_lock(void) 
 11{ 
-12    unsigned long flags; 
+12    unsigned long flags; 
 13 
 14    read_lock_irqsave(&myrwlock, flags); 
-15    pr_info("Read Locked\n"); 
+15    pr_info("Read Locked\n"); 
 16 
-17    /* Read from something */ 
+17    /* Read from something */ 
 18 
 19    read_unlock_irqrestore(&myrwlock, flags); 
-20    pr_info("Read Unlocked\n"); 
+20    pr_info("Read Unlocked\n"); 
 21} 
 22 
-23static void example_write_lock(void) 
+23static void example_write_lock(void) 
 24{ 
-25    unsigned long flags; 
+25    unsigned long flags; 
 26 
 27    write_lock_irqsave(&myrwlock, flags); 
-28    pr_info("Write Locked\n"); 
+28    pr_info("Write Locked\n"); 
 29 
-30    /* Write to something */ 
+30    /* Write to something */ 
 31 
 32    write_unlock_irqrestore(&myrwlock, flags); 
-33    pr_info("Write Unlocked\n"); 
+33    pr_info("Write Unlocked\n"); 
 34} 
 35 
-36static int example_rwlock_init(void) 
+36static int example_rwlock_init(void) 
 37{ 
-38    pr_info("example_rwlock started\n"); 
+38    pr_info("example_rwlock started\n"); 
 39 
 40    example_read_lock(); 
 41    example_write_lock(); 
 42 
-43    return 0; 
+43    return 0; 
 44} 
 45 
-46static void example_rwlock_exit(void) 
+46static void example_rwlock_exit(void) 
 47{ 
-48    pr_info("example_rwlock exit\n"); 
+48    pr_info("example_rwlock exit\n"); 
 49} 
 50 
 51module_init(example_rwlock_init); 
 52module_exit(example_rwlock_exit); 
 53 
-54MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Read/Write locks example"); 
-55MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

-
   Of course, if you know for sure that there are no functions triggered by irqs
+54MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Read/Write locks example"); 
+55MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

+
   Of course, if you know for sure that there are no functions triggered by irqs
 which could possibly interfere with your logic then you can use the simpler
  read_lock(&myrwlock)
  and   read_unlock(&myrwlock)
  or the corresponding write functions.
 

    
12.4    Atomic operations

-
If you are doing simple arithmetic: adding, subtracting or bitwise operations, then
+
If you are doing simple arithmetic: adding, subtracting or bitwise operations, then
 there is another way in the multi-CPU and multi-hyperthreaded world to stop other
 parts of the system from messing with your mojo. By using atomic operations you
 can be confident that your addition, subtraction or bit flip did actually happen
@@ -4340,84 +4390,84 @@ and was not overwritten by some other shenanigans. An example is shown
 below.
 

 

-   
1/* 
-2 * example_atomic.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-6#include <linux/module.h> 
+   
1/* 
+2 * example_atomic.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+6#include <linux/module.h> 
 7 
-8#define BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN "%c%c%c%c%c%c%c%c" 
-9#define BYTE_TO_BINARY(byte)                                                   \ 
-10    ((byte & 0x80) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x40) ? '1' : '0'),                  \ 
-11        ((byte & 0x20) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x10) ? '1' : '0'),              \ 
-12        ((byte & 0x08) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x04) ? '1' : '0'),              \ 
-13        ((byte & 0x02) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x01) ? '1' : '0') 
+8#define BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN "%c%c%c%c%c%c%c%c" 
+9#define BYTE_TO_BINARY(byte)                                                   \ 
+10    ((byte & 0x80) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x40) ? '1' : '0'),                  \ 
+11        ((byte & 0x20) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x10) ? '1' : '0'),              \ 
+12        ((byte & 0x08) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x04) ? '1' : '0'),              \ 
+13        ((byte & 0x02) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x01) ? '1' : '0') 
 14 
-15static void atomic_add_subtract(void) 
+15static void atomic_add_subtract(void) 
 16{ 
 17    atomic_t debbie; 
 18    atomic_t chris = ATOMIC_INIT(50); 
 19 
 20    atomic_set(&debbie, 45); 
 21 
-22    /* subtract one */ 
+22    /* subtract one */ 
 23    atomic_dec(&debbie); 
 24 
 25    atomic_add(7, &debbie); 
 26 
-27    /* add one */ 
+27    /* add one */ 
 28    atomic_inc(&debbie); 
 29 
-30    pr_info("chris: %d, debbie: %d\n", atomic_read(&chris), 
+30    pr_info("chris: %d, debbie: %d\n", atomic_read(&chris), 
 31            atomic_read(&debbie)); 
 32} 
 33 
-34static void atomic_bitwise(void) 
+34static void atomic_bitwise(void) 
 35{ 
-36    unsigned long word = 0; 
+36    unsigned long word = 0; 
 37 
-38    pr_info("Bits 0: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+38    pr_info("Bits 0: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
 39    set_bit(3, &word); 
 40    set_bit(5, &word); 
-41    pr_info("Bits 1: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+41    pr_info("Bits 1: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
 42    clear_bit(5, &word); 
-43    pr_info("Bits 2: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+43    pr_info("Bits 2: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
 44    change_bit(3, &word); 
 45 
-46    pr_info("Bits 3: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
-47    if (test_and_set_bit(3, &word)) 
-48        pr_info("wrong\n"); 
-49    pr_info("Bits 4: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+46    pr_info("Bits 3: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+47    if (test_and_set_bit(3, &word)) 
+48        pr_info("wrong\n"); 
+49    pr_info("Bits 4: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
 50 
 51    word = 255; 
-52    pr_info("Bits 5: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+52    pr_info("Bits 5: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
 53} 
 54 
-55static int example_atomic_init(void) 
+55static int example_atomic_init(void) 
 56{ 
-57    pr_info("example_atomic started\n"); 
+57    pr_info("example_atomic started\n"); 
 58 
 59    atomic_add_subtract(); 
 60    atomic_bitwise(); 
 61 
-62    return 0; 
+62    return 0; 
 63} 
 64 
-65static void example_atomic_exit(void) 
+65static void example_atomic_exit(void) 
 66{ 
-67    pr_info("example_atomic exit\n"); 
+67    pr_info("example_atomic exit\n"); 
 68} 
 69 
 70module_init(example_atomic_init); 
 71module_exit(example_atomic_exit); 
 72 
-73MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Atomic operations example"); 
-74MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

+73MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Atomic operations example"); 
+74MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
   Before the C11 standard adopts the built-in atomic types, the kernel already
+
   Before the C11 standard adopts the built-in atomic types, the kernel already
 provided a small set of atomic types by using a bunch of tricky architecture-specific
 codes. Implementing the atomic types by C11 atomics may allow the kernel to throw
 away the architecture-specific codes and letting the kernel code be more friendly to
@@ -4430,113 +4480,113 @@ For further details, see: 

      
  • Time to move to C11 atomics?
      
    • 
      
  • Atomic usage patterns in the kernel
    • 
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    13    Replacing Print Macros
    
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    13.1    Replacement
    
-
    In Section 2, I said that X Window System and kernel module programming do not
+
    In Section 2, I said that X Window System and kernel module programming do not
 mix. That is true for developing kernel modules. But in actual use, you want to be
 able to send messages to whichever tty the command to load the module came
 from.
-
       "tty" is an abbreviation of teletype: originally a combination keyboard-printer
+
       "tty" is an abbreviation of teletype: originally a combination keyboard-printer
 used to communicate with a Unix system, and today an abstraction for the text
 stream used for a Unix program, whether it is a physical terminal, an xterm on an X
 display, a network connection used with ssh, etc.
-
       The way this is done is by using current, a pointer to the currently running task,
+
       The way this is done is by using current, a pointer to the currently running task,
 to get the current task’s tty structure. Then, we look inside that tty structure to find
 a pointer to a string write function, which we use to write a string to the
 tty.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * print_string.c - Send output to the tty we're running on, regardless if 
-3 * it is through X11, telnet, etc.  We do this by printing the string to the 
-4 * tty associated with the current task. 
-5 */ 
-6#include <linux/init.h> 
-7#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-8#include <linux/module.h> 
-9#include <linux/sched.h> /* For current */ 
-10#include <linux/tty.h> /* For the tty declarations */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * print_string.c - Send output to the tty we're running on, regardless if 
+3 * it is through X11, telnet, etc.  We do this by printing the string to the 
+4 * tty associated with the current task. 
+5 */ 
+6#include <linux/init.h> 
+7#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+8#include <linux/module.h> 
+9#include <linux/sched.h> /* For current */ 
+10#include <linux/tty.h> /* For the tty declarations */ 
 11 
-12static void print_string(char *str) 
+12static void print_string(char *str) 
 13{ 
-14    /* The tty for the current task */ 
-15    struct tty_struct *my_tty = get_current_tty(); 
+14    /* The tty for the current task */ 
+15    struct tty_struct *my_tty = get_current_tty(); 
 16 
-17    /* If my_tty is NULL, the current task has no tty you can print to (i.e., 
-18     * if it is a daemon). If so, there is nothing we can do. 
-19     */ 
-20    if (my_tty) { 
-21        const struct tty_operations *ttyops = my_tty->driver->ops; 
-22        /* my_tty->driver is a struct which holds the tty's functions, 
-23         * one of which (write) is used to write strings to the tty. 
-24         * It can be used to take a string either from the user's or 
-25         * kernel's memory segment. 
-26         * 
-27         * The function's 1st parameter is the tty to write to, because the 
-28         * same function would normally be used for all tty's of a certain 
-29         * type. 
-30         * The 2nd parameter is a pointer to a string. 
-31         * The 3rd parameter is the length of the string. 
-32         * 
-33         * As you will see below, sometimes it's necessary to use 
-34         * preprocessor stuff to create code that works for different 
-35         * kernel versions. The (naive) approach we've taken here does not 
-36         * scale well. The right way to deal with this is described in 
-37         * section 2 of 
-38         * linux/Documentation/SubmittingPatches 
-39         */ 
-40        (ttyops->write)(my_tty, /* The tty itself */ 
-41                        str, /* String */ 
-42                        strlen(str)); /* Length */ 
+17    /* If my_tty is NULL, the current task has no tty you can print to (i.e., 
+18     * if it is a daemon). If so, there is nothing we can do. 
+19     */ 
+20    if (my_tty) { 
+21        const struct tty_operations *ttyops = my_tty->driver->ops; 
+22        /* my_tty->driver is a struct which holds the tty's functions, 
+23         * one of which (write) is used to write strings to the tty. 
+24         * It can be used to take a string either from the user's or 
+25         * kernel's memory segment. 
+26         * 
+27         * The function's 1st parameter is the tty to write to, because the 
+28         * same function would normally be used for all tty's of a certain 
+29         * type. 
+30         * The 2nd parameter is a pointer to a string. 
+31         * The 3rd parameter is the length of the string. 
+32         * 
+33         * As you will see below, sometimes it's necessary to use 
+34         * preprocessor stuff to create code that works for different 
+35         * kernel versions. The (naive) approach we've taken here does not 
+36         * scale well. The right way to deal with this is described in 
+37         * section 2 of 
+38         * linux/Documentation/SubmittingPatches 
+39         */ 
+40        (ttyops->write)(my_tty, /* The tty itself */ 
+41                        str, /* String */ 
+42                        strlen(str)); /* Length */ 
 43 
-44        /* ttys were originally hardware devices, which (usually) strictly 
-45         * followed the ASCII standard. In ASCII, to move to a new line you 
-46         * need two characters, a carriage return and a line feed. On Unix, 
-47         * the ASCII line feed is used for both purposes - so we can not 
-48         * just use \n, because it would not have a carriage return and the 
-49         * next line will start at the column right after the line feed. 
-50         * 
-51         * This is why text files are different between Unix and MS Windows. 
-52         * In CP/M and derivatives, like MS-DOS and MS Windows, the ASCII 
-53         * standard was strictly adhered to, and therefore a newline requires 
-54         * both a LF and a CR. 
-55         */ 
-56        (ttyops->write)(my_tty, "\015\012", 2); 
+44        /* ttys were originally hardware devices, which (usually) strictly 
+45         * followed the ASCII standard. In ASCII, to move to a new line you 
+46         * need two characters, a carriage return and a line feed. On Unix, 
+47         * the ASCII line feed is used for both purposes - so we can not 
+48         * just use \n, because it would not have a carriage return and the 
+49         * next line will start at the column right after the line feed. 
+50         * 
+51         * This is why text files are different between Unix and MS Windows. 
+52         * In CP/M and derivatives, like MS-DOS and MS Windows, the ASCII 
+53         * standard was strictly adhered to, and therefore a newline requires 
+54         * both a LF and a CR. 
+55         */ 
+56        (ttyops->write)(my_tty, "\015\012", 2); 
 57    } 
 58} 
 59 
-60static int __init print_string_init(void) 
+60static int __init print_string_init(void) 
 61{ 
-62    print_string("The module has been inserted.  Hello world!"); 
-63    return 0; 
+62    print_string("The module has been inserted.  Hello world!"); 
+63    return 0; 
 64} 
 65 
-66static void __exit print_string_exit(void) 
+66static void __exit print_string_exit(void) 
 67{ 
-68    print_string("The module has been removed.  Farewell world!"); 
+68    print_string("The module has been removed.  Farewell world!"); 
 69} 
 70 
 71module_init(print_string_init); 
 72module_exit(print_string_exit); 
 73 
-74MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+74MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    13.2    Flashing keyboard LEDs
    
-
    In certain conditions, you may desire a simpler and more direct way to communicate
+
    In certain conditions, you may desire a simpler and more direct way to communicate
 to the external world. Flashing keyboard LEDs can be such a solution: It is an
 immediate way to attract attention or to display a status condition. Keyboard LEDs
 are present on every hardware, they are always visible, they do not need any setup,
 and their use is rather simple and non-intrusive, compared to writing to a tty or a
 file.
-
       From v4.14 to v4.15, the timer API made a series of changes
+
       From v4.14 to v4.15, the timer API made a series of changes
 to improve memory safety. A buffer overflow in the area of a
  timer_list
  structure may be able to overwrite the
@@ -4544,37 +4594,37 @@ to improve memory safety. A buffer overflow in the area of a
  and   data
  fields, providing the attacker with a way to use return-object programming (ROP)
 to call arbitrary functions within the kernel. Also, the function prototype of the callback,
-containing a   unsigned long
+containing a   unsigned long
  argument, will prevent work from any type checking. Furthermore, the function prototype
-with   unsigned long
+with   unsigned long
  argument may be an obstacle to the control-flow integrity. Thus, it is better
 to use a unique prototype to separate from the cluster that takes an
- unsigned long
+ unsigned long
  argument. The timer callback should be passed a pointer to the
  timer_list
- structure rather than an   unsigned long
+ structure rather than an   unsigned long
  argument. Then, it wraps all the information the callback needs, including the
  timer_list
  structure, into a larger structure, and it can use the
  container_of
- macro instead of the   unsigned long
+ macro instead of the   unsigned long
  value.
-
       Before Linux v4.14,   setup_timer
+
       Before Linux v4.14,   setup_timer
  was used to initialize the timer and the
  timer_list
  structure looked like: 
 
    
-   
    1struct timer_list { 
-2    unsigned long expires; 
-3    void (*function)(unsigned long); 
-4    unsigned long data; 
+   
    1struct timer_list { 
+2    unsigned long expires; 
+3    void (*function)(unsigned long); 
+4    unsigned long data; 
 5    u32 flags; 
-6    /* ... */ 
+6    /* ... */ 
 7}; 
 8 
-9void setup_timer(struct timer_list *timer, void (*callback)(unsigned long), 
-10                 unsigned long data);
    
-
       Since Linux v4.14,   timer_setup
+9void setup_timer(struct timer_list *timer, void (*callback)(unsigned long), 
+10                 unsigned long data);
    
+
       Since Linux v4.14,   timer_setup
  is adopted and the kernel step by step converting to
  timer_setup
  from   setup_timer
@@ -4586,63 +4636,63 @@ Moreover, the   timer_setup
  was implemented by   setup_timer
  at first. 
 
    
-   
    1void timer_setup(struct timer_list *timer, 
-2                 void (*callback)(struct timer_list *), unsigned int flags);
    
-
       The   setup_timer
+   
    1void timer_setup(struct timer_list *timer, 
+2                 void (*callback)(struct timer_list *), unsigned int flags);
    
+
       The   setup_timer
  was then removed since v4.15. As a result, the
  timer_list
  structure had changed to the following. 
 
    
-   
    1struct timer_list { 
-2    unsigned long expires; 
-3    void (*function)(struct timer_list *); 
+   
    1struct timer_list { 
+2    unsigned long expires; 
+3    void (*function)(struct timer_list *); 
 4    u32 flags; 
-5    /* ... */ 
+5    /* ... */ 
 6};
    
-
       The following source code illustrates a minimal kernel module which, when
+
       The following source code illustrates a minimal kernel module which, when
 loaded, starts blinking the keyboard LEDs until it is unloaded.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * kbleds.c - Blink keyboard leds until the module is unloaded. 
-3 */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * kbleds.c - Blink keyboard leds until the module is unloaded. 
+3 */ 
 4 
-5#include <linux/init.h> 
-6#include <linux/kd.h> /* For KDSETLED */ 
-7#include <linux/module.h> 
-8#include <linux/tty.h> /* For tty_struct */ 
-9#include <linux/vt.h> /* For MAX_NR_CONSOLES */ 
-10#include <linux/vt_kern.h> /* for fg_console */ 
-11#include <linux/console_struct.h> /* For vc_cons */ 
+5#include <linux/init.h> 
+6#include <linux/kd.h> /* For KDSETLED */ 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
+8#include <linux/tty.h> /* For tty_struct */ 
+9#include <linux/vt.h> /* For MAX_NR_CONSOLES */ 
+10#include <linux/vt_kern.h> /* for fg_console */ 
+11#include <linux/console_struct.h> /* For vc_cons */ 
 12 
-13MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Example module illustrating the use of Keyboard LEDs."); 
+13MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Example module illustrating the use of Keyboard LEDs."); 
 14 
-15static struct timer_list my_timer; 
-16static struct tty_driver *my_driver; 
-17static unsigned long kbledstatus = 0; 
+15static struct timer_list my_timer; 
+16static struct tty_driver *my_driver; 
+17static unsigned long kbledstatus = 0; 
 18 
-19#define BLINK_DELAY HZ / 5 
-20#define ALL_LEDS_ON 0x07 
-21#define RESTORE_LEDS 0xFF 
+19#define BLINK_DELAY HZ / 5 
+20#define ALL_LEDS_ON 0x07 
+21#define RESTORE_LEDS 0xFF 
 22 
-23/* Function my_timer_func blinks the keyboard LEDs periodically by invoking 
-24 * command KDSETLED of ioctl() on the keyboard driver. To learn more on virtual 
-25 * terminal ioctl operations, please see file: 
-26 *   drivers/tty/vt/vt_ioctl.c, function vt_ioctl(). 
-27 * 
-28 * The argument to KDSETLED is alternatively set to 7 (thus causing the led 
-29 * mode to be set to LED_SHOW_IOCTL, and all the leds are lit) and to 0xFF 
-30 * (any value above 7 switches back the led mode to LED_SHOW_FLAGS, thus 
-31 * the LEDs reflect the actual keyboard status).  To learn more on this, 
-32 * please see file: drivers/tty/vt/keyboard.c, function setledstate(). 
-33 */ 
-34static void my_timer_func(struct timer_list *unused) 
+23/* Function my_timer_func blinks the keyboard LEDs periodically by invoking 
+24 * command KDSETLED of ioctl() on the keyboard driver. To learn more on virtual 
+25 * terminal ioctl operations, please see file: 
+26 *   drivers/tty/vt/vt_ioctl.c, function vt_ioctl(). 
+27 * 
+28 * The argument to KDSETLED is alternatively set to 7 (thus causing the led 
+29 * mode to be set to LED_SHOW_IOCTL, and all the leds are lit) and to 0xFF 
+30 * (any value above 7 switches back the led mode to LED_SHOW_FLAGS, thus 
+31 * the LEDs reflect the actual keyboard status).  To learn more on this, 
+32 * please see file: drivers/tty/vt/keyboard.c, function setledstate(). 
+33 */ 
+34static void my_timer_func(struct timer_list *unused) 
 35{ 
-36    struct tty_struct *t = vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty; 
+36    struct tty_struct *t = vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty; 
 37 
-38    if (kbledstatus == ALL_LEDS_ON) 
+38    if (kbledstatus == ALL_LEDS_ON) 
 39        kbledstatus = RESTORE_LEDS; 
-40    else 
+40    else 
 41        kbledstatus = ALL_LEDS_ON; 
 42 
 43    (my_driver->ops->ioctl)(t, KDSETLED, kbledstatus); 
@@ -4651,34 +4701,34 @@ loaded, starts blinking the keyboard LEDs until it is unloaded.
 46    add_timer(&my_timer); 
 47} 
 48 
-49static int __init kbleds_init(void) 
+49static int __init kbleds_init(void) 
 50{ 
-51    int i; 
+51    int i; 
 52 
-53    pr_info("kbleds: loading\n"); 
-54    pr_info("kbleds: fgconsole is %x\n", fg_console); 
-55    for (i = 0; i < MAX_NR_CONSOLES; i++) { 
-56        if (!vc_cons[i].d) 
-57            break; 
-58        pr_info("poet_atkm: console[%i/%i] #%i, tty %p\n", i, MAX_NR_CONSOLES, 
-59                vc_cons[i].d->vc_num, (void *)vc_cons[i].d->port.tty); 
+53    pr_info("kbleds: loading\n"); 
+54    pr_info("kbleds: fgconsole is %x\n", fg_console); 
+55    for (i = 0; i < MAX_NR_CONSOLES; i++) { 
+56        if (!vc_cons[i].d) 
+57            break; 
+58        pr_info("poet_atkm: console[%i/%i] #%i, tty %p\n", i, MAX_NR_CONSOLES, 
+59                vc_cons[i].d->vc_num, (void *)vc_cons[i].d->port.tty); 
 60    } 
-61    pr_info("kbleds: finished scanning consoles\n"); 
+61    pr_info("kbleds: finished scanning consoles\n"); 
 62 
 63    my_driver = vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty->driver; 
-64    pr_info("kbleds: tty driver magic %x\n", my_driver->magic); 
+64    pr_info("kbleds: tty driver magic %x\n", my_driver->magic); 
 65 
-66    /* Set up the LED blink timer the first time. */ 
+66    /* Set up the LED blink timer the first time. */ 
 67    timer_setup(&my_timer, my_timer_func, 0); 
 68    my_timer.expires = jiffies + BLINK_DELAY; 
 69    add_timer(&my_timer); 
 70 
-71    return 0; 
+71    return 0; 
 72} 
 73 
-74static void __exit kbleds_cleanup(void) 
+74static void __exit kbleds_cleanup(void) 
 75{ 
-76    pr_info("kbleds: unloading...\n"); 
+76    pr_info("kbleds: unloading...\n"); 
 77    del_timer(&my_timer); 
 78    (my_driver->ops->ioctl)(vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty, KDSETLED, 
 79                            RESTORE_LEDS); 
@@ -4687,8 +4737,8 @@ loaded, starts blinking the keyboard LEDs until it is unloaded.
 82module_init(kbleds_init); 
 83module_exit(kbleds_cleanup); 
 84 
-85MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
       If none of the examples in this chapter fit your debugging needs,
+85MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
       If none of the examples in this chapter fit your debugging needs,
 there might yet be some other tricks to try. Ever wondered what
  CONFIG_LL_DEBUG
  in   make menuconfig
@@ -4699,76 +4749,76 @@ everything what your code does over a serial line. If you find yourself porting
 kernel to some new and former unsupported architecture, this is usually amongst the
 first things that should be implemented. Logging over a netconsole might also be
 worth a try.
-
       While you have seen lots of stuff that can be used to aid debugging here, there are
+
       While you have seen lots of stuff that can be used to aid debugging here, there are
 some things to be aware of. Debugging is almost always intrusive. Adding debug code
 can change the situation enough to make the bug seem to disappear. Thus, you
 should keep debug code to a minimum and make sure it does not show up in
 production code.
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    14    Scheduling Tasks
    
-
    There are two main ways of running tasks: tasklets and work queues. Tasklets are a
+
    There are two main ways of running tasks: tasklets and work queues. Tasklets are a
 quick and easy way of scheduling a single function to be run. For example, when
 triggered from an interrupt, whereas work queues are more complicated but also
 better suited to running multiple things in a sequence.
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    14.1    Tasklets
    
-
    Here is an example tasklet module. The
+
    Here is an example tasklet module. The
  tasklet_fn
  function runs for a few seconds and in the mean time execution of the
  example_tasklet_init
  function continues to the exit point.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * example_tasklet.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/delay.h> 
-5#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-7#include <linux/module.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * example_tasklet.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/delay.h> 
+5#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
 8 
-9/* Macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists for compatibility. 
-10 * See https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/ 
-11 */ 
-12#ifndef DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD 
-13#define DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(arg1, arg2) DECLARE_TASKLET(arg1, arg2, 0L) 
-14#endif 
+9/* Macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists for compatibility. 
+10 * See https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/ 
+11 */ 
+12#ifndef DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD 
+13#define DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(arg1, arg2) DECLARE_TASKLET(arg1, arg2, 0L) 
+14#endif 
 15 
-16static void tasklet_fn(unsigned long data) 
+16static void tasklet_fn(unsigned long data) 
 17{ 
-18    pr_info("Example tasklet starts\n"); 
+18    pr_info("Example tasklet starts\n"); 
 19    mdelay(5000); 
-20    pr_info("Example tasklet ends\n"); 
+20    pr_info("Example tasklet ends\n"); 
 21} 
 22 
-23static DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(mytask, tasklet_fn); 
+23static DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(mytask, tasklet_fn); 
 24 
-25static int example_tasklet_init(void) 
+25static int example_tasklet_init(void) 
 26{ 
-27    pr_info("tasklet example init\n"); 
+27    pr_info("tasklet example init\n"); 
 28    tasklet_schedule(&mytask); 
 29    mdelay(200); 
-30    pr_info("Example tasklet init continues...\n"); 
-31    return 0; 
+30    pr_info("Example tasklet init continues...\n"); 
+31    return 0; 
 32} 
 33 
-34static void example_tasklet_exit(void) 
+34static void example_tasklet_exit(void) 
 35{ 
-36    pr_info("tasklet example exit\n"); 
+36    pr_info("tasklet example exit\n"); 
 37    tasklet_kill(&mytask); 
 38} 
 39 
 40module_init(example_tasklet_init); 
 41module_exit(example_tasklet_exit); 
 42 
-43MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Tasklet example"); 
-44MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
       So with this example loaded   dmesg
+43MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Tasklet example"); 
+44MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
       So with this example loaded   dmesg
  should show:
                                                                   
 
@@ -4780,50 +4830,50 @@ Example tasklet starts
 Example tasklet init continues...
 Example tasklet ends
 
    
-
    Although tasklet is easy to use, it comes with several defators, and developers are
+
    Although tasklet is easy to use, it comes with several defators, and developers are
 discussing about getting rid of tasklet in linux kernel. The tasklet callback
 runs in atomic context, inside a software interrupt, meaning that it cannot
 sleep or access user-space data, so not all work can be done in a tasklet
 handler. Also, the kernel only allows one instance of any given tasklet to be
 running at any given time; multiple different tasklet callbacks can run in
 parallel.
-
       In recent kernels, tasklets can be replaced by workqueues, timers, or threaded
+
       In recent kernels, tasklets can be replaced by workqueues, timers, or threaded
 interrupts.1
 While the removal of tasklets remains a longer-term goal, the current kernel contains more
 than a hundred uses of tasklets. Now developers are proceeding with the API changes and
 the macro   DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD
  exists for compatibility. For further information, see https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/.
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    14.2    Work queues
    
-
    To add a task to the scheduler we can use a workqueue. The kernel then uses the
+
    To add a task to the scheduler we can use a workqueue. The kernel then uses the
 Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS) to execute work within the queue.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * sched.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/init.h> 
-5#include <linux/module.h> 
-6#include <linux/workqueue.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * sched.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/init.h> 
+5#include <linux/module.h> 
+6#include <linux/workqueue.h> 
 7 
-8static struct workqueue_struct *queue = NULL; 
-9static struct work_struct work; 
+8static struct workqueue_struct *queue = NULL; 
+9static struct work_struct work; 
 10 
-11static void work_handler(struct work_struct *data) 
+11static void work_handler(struct work_struct *data) 
 12{ 
-13    pr_info("work handler function.\n"); 
+13    pr_info("work handler function.\n"); 
 14} 
 15 
-16static int __init sched_init(void) 
+16static int __init sched_init(void) 
 17{ 
-18    queue = alloc_workqueue("HELLOWORLD", WQ_UNBOUND, 1); 
+18    queue = alloc_workqueue("HELLOWORLD", WQ_UNBOUND, 1); 
 19    INIT_WORK(&work, work_handler); 
 20    schedule_work(&work); 
-21    return 0; 
+21    return 0; 
 22} 
 23 
-24static void __exit sched_exit(void) 
+24static void __exit sched_exit(void) 
 25{ 
 26    destroy_workqueue(queue); 
 27} 
@@ -4831,38 +4881,38 @@ Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS) to execute work within the queue.
 29module_init(sched_init); 
 30module_exit(sched_exit); 
 31 
-32MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-33MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Workqueue example");
    
-
    
+32MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+33MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Workqueue example");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    15    Interrupt Handlers
    
-
    
+
    
 
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
    
    15.1    Interrupt Handlers
    
-
    Except for the last chapter, everything we did in the kernel so far we have done as a
+
    Except for the last chapter, everything we did in the kernel so far we have done as a
 response to a process asking for it, either by dealing with a special file, sending an
  ioctl()
 , or issuing a system call. But the job of the kernel is not just to respond to process
 requests. Another job, which is every bit as important, is to speak to the hardware
 connected to the machine.
-
       There are two types of interaction between the CPU and the rest of the
+
       There are two types of interaction between the CPU and the rest of the
 computer’s hardware. The first type is when the CPU gives orders to the hardware,
 the order is when the hardware needs to tell the CPU something. The second, called
 interrupts, is much harder to implement because it has to be dealt with when
 convenient for the hardware, not the CPU. Hardware devices typically have a very
 small amount of RAM, and if you do not read their information when available, it is
 lost.
-
       Under Linux, hardware interrupts are called IRQ’s (Interrupt ReQuests). There
+
       Under Linux, hardware interrupts are called IRQ’s (Interrupt ReQuests). There
 are two types of IRQ’s, short and long. A short IRQ is one which is expected to take
 a very short period of time, during which the rest of the machine will be blocked and
 no other interrupts will be handled. A long IRQ is one which can take longer, and
 during which other interrupts may occur (but not interrupts from the same
 device). If at all possible, it is better to declare an interrupt handler to be
 long.
-
       When the CPU receives an interrupt, it stops whatever it is doing (unless it is
+
       When the CPU receives an interrupt, it stops whatever it is doing (unless it is
 processing a more important interrupt, in which case it will deal with this one only
 when the more important one is done), saves certain parameters on the stack and
 calls the interrupt handler. This means that certain things are not allowed in the
@@ -4874,10 +4924,10 @@ heavy work deferred from an interrupt handler. Historically, BH (Linux
 naming for Bottom Halves) statistically book-keeps the deferred functions.
 Softirq and its higher level abstraction, Tasklet, replace BH since Linux
 2.3.
-
       The way to implement this is to call
+
       The way to implement this is to call
  request_irq()
  to get your interrupt handler called when the relevant IRQ is received.
-
       In practice IRQ handling can be a bit more complex. Hardware is often
+
       In practice IRQ handling can be a bit more complex. Hardware is often
 designed in a way that chains two interrupt controllers, so that all the IRQs
 from interrupt controller B are cascaded to a certain IRQ from interrupt
 controller A. Of course, that requires that the kernel finds out which IRQ it
@@ -4894,7 +4944,7 @@ need to solve another truckload of problems. It is not enough to know if a
 certain IRQs has happened, it’s also important to know what CPU(s) it was
 for. People still interested in more details, might want to refer to "APIC"
 now.
-
       This function receives the IRQ number, the name of the function,
+
       This function receives the IRQ number, the name of the function,
 flags, a name for /proc/interrupts and a parameter to be passed to the
 interrupt handler. Usually there is a certain number of IRQs available.
 How many IRQs there are is hardware-dependent. The flags can include
@@ -4904,128 +4954,128 @@ How many IRQs there are is hardware-dependent. The flags can include
  SA_INTERRUPT
  to indicate this is a fast interrupt. This function will only succeed if there is not
 already a handler on this IRQ, or if you are both willing to share.
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    15.2    Detecting button presses
    
-
    Many popular single board computers, such as Raspberry Pi or Beagleboards, have a
+
    Many popular single board computers, such as Raspberry Pi or Beagleboards, have a
 bunch of GPIO pins. Attaching buttons to those and then having a button press do
 something is a classic case in which you might need to use interrupts, so that instead
 of having the CPU waste time and battery power polling for a change in input state,
 it is better for the input to trigger the CPU to then run a particular handling
 function.
-
       Here is an example where buttons are connected to GPIO numbers 17 and 18 and
+
       Here is an example where buttons are connected to GPIO numbers 17 and 18 and
 an LED is connected to GPIO 4. You can change those numbers to whatever is
 appropriate for your board.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * intrpt.c - Handling GPIO with interrupts 
-3 * 
-4 * Based upon the RPi example by Stefan Wendler (devnull@kaltpost.de) 
-5 * from: 
-6 *   https://github.com/wendlers/rpi-kmod-samples 
-7 * 
-8 * Press one button to turn on a LED and another to turn it off. 
-9 */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * intrpt.c - Handling GPIO with interrupts 
+3 * 
+4 * Based upon the RPi example by Stefan Wendler (devnull@kaltpost.de) 
+5 * from: 
+6 *   https://github.com/wendlers/rpi-kmod-samples 
+7 * 
+8 * Press one button to turn on a LED and another to turn it off. 
+9 */ 
 10 
-11#include <linux/gpio.h> 
-12#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-13#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-14#include <linux/module.h> 
+11#include <linux/gpio.h> 
+12#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+13#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+14#include <linux/module.h> 
 15 
-16static int button_irqs[] = { -1, -1 }; 
+16static int button_irqs[] = { -1, -1 }; 
 17 
-18/* Define GPIOs for LEDs. 
-19 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
-20 */ 
-21static struct gpio leds[] = { { 4, GPIOF_OUT_INIT_LOW, "LED 1" } }; 
+18/* Define GPIOs for LEDs. 
+19 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
+20 */ 
+21static struct gpio leds[] = { { 4, GPIOF_OUT_INIT_LOW, "LED 1" } }; 
 22 
-23/* Define GPIOs for BUTTONS 
-24 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
-25 */ 
-26static struct gpio buttons[] = { { 17, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 ON BUTTON" }, 
-27                                 { 18, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 OFF BUTTON" } }; 
+23/* Define GPIOs for BUTTONS 
+24 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
+25 */ 
+26static struct gpio buttons[] = { { 17, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 ON BUTTON" }, 
+27                                 { 18, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 OFF BUTTON" } }; 
 28 
-29/* interrupt function triggered when a button is pressed. */ 
-30static irqreturn_t button_isr(int irq, void *data) 
+29/* interrupt function triggered when a button is pressed. */ 
+30static irqreturn_t button_isr(int irq, void *data) 
 31{ 
-32    /* first button */ 
-33    if (irq == button_irqs[0] && !gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
+32    /* first button */ 
+33    if (irq == button_irqs[0] && !gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
 34        gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 1); 
-35    /* second button */ 
-36    else if (irq == button_irqs[1] && gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
+35    /* second button */ 
+36    else if (irq == button_irqs[1] && gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
 37        gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 0); 
 38 
-39    return IRQ_HANDLED; 
+39    return IRQ_HANDLED; 
 40} 
 41 
-42static int __init intrpt_init(void) 
+42static int __init intrpt_init(void) 
 43{ 
-44    int ret = 0; 
+44    int ret = 0; 
 45 
-46    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
+46    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
 47 
-48    /* register LED gpios */ 
+48    /* register LED gpios */ 
 49    ret = gpio_request_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 50 
-51    if (ret) { 
-52        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for LEDs: %d\n", ret); 
-53        return ret; 
+51    if (ret) { 
+52        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for LEDs: %d\n", ret); 
+53        return ret; 
 54    } 
 55 
-56    /* register BUTTON gpios */ 
+56    /* register BUTTON gpios */ 
 57    ret = gpio_request_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons)); 
 58 
-59    if (ret) { 
-60        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for BUTTONs: %d\n", ret); 
-61        goto fail1; 
+59    if (ret) { 
+60        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for BUTTONs: %d\n", ret); 
+61        goto fail1; 
 62    } 
 63 
-64    pr_info("Current button1 value: %d\n", gpio_get_value(buttons[0].gpio)); 
+64    pr_info("Current button1 value: %d\n", gpio_get_value(buttons[0].gpio)); 
 65 
 66    ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[0].gpio); 
 67 
-68    if (ret < 0) { 
-69        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-70        goto fail2; 
+68    if (ret < 0) { 
+69        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+70        goto fail2; 
 71    } 
 72 
 73    button_irqs[0] = ret; 
 74 
-75    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON1 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[0]); 
+75    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON1 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[0]); 
 76 
 77    ret = request_irq(button_irqs[0], button_isr, 
 78                      IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING, 
-79                      "gpiomod#button1", NULL); 
+79                      "gpiomod#button1", NULL); 
 80 
-81    if (ret) { 
-82        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-83        goto fail2; 
+81    if (ret) { 
+82        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+83        goto fail2; 
 84    } 
 85 
 86    ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[1].gpio); 
 87 
-88    if (ret < 0) { 
-89        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-90        goto fail2; 
+88    if (ret < 0) { 
+89        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+90        goto fail2; 
 91    } 
 92 
 93    button_irqs[1] = ret; 
 94 
-95    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON2 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[1]); 
+95    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON2 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[1]); 
 96 
 97    ret = request_irq(button_irqs[1], button_isr, 
 98                      IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING, 
-99                      "gpiomod#button2", NULL); 
+99                      "gpiomod#button2", NULL); 
 100 
-101    if (ret) { 
-102        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-103        goto fail3; 
+101    if (ret) { 
+102        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+103        goto fail3; 
 104    } 
 105 
-106    return 0; 
+106    return 0; 
 107 
-108/* cleanup what has been setup so far */ 
+108/* cleanup what has been setup so far */ 
 109fail3: 
 110    free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL); 
 111 
@@ -5035,24 +5085,24 @@ appropriate for your board.
 115fail1: 
 116    gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 117 
-118    return ret; 
+118    return ret; 
 119} 
 120 
-121static void __exit intrpt_exit(void) 
+121static void __exit intrpt_exit(void) 
 122{ 
-123    int i; 
+123    int i; 
 124 
-125    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
+125    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
 126 
-127    /* free irqs */ 
+127    /* free irqs */ 
 128    free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL); 
 129    free_irq(button_irqs[1], NULL); 
 130 
-131    /* turn all LEDs off */ 
-132    for (i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE(leds); i++) 
+131    /* turn all LEDs off */ 
+132    for (i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE(leds); i++) 
 133        gpio_set_value(leds[i].gpio, 0); 
 134 
-135    /* unregister */ 
+135    /* unregister */ 
 136    gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 137    gpio_free_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons)); 
 138} 
@@ -5060,153 +5110,153 @@ appropriate for your board.
 140module_init(intrpt_init); 
 141module_exit(intrpt_exit); 
 142 
-143MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-144MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Handle some GPIO interrupts");
    
-
    
+143MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+144MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Handle some GPIO interrupts");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    15.3    Bottom Half
    
-
    Suppose you want to do a bunch of stuff inside of an interrupt routine. A common
+
    Suppose you want to do a bunch of stuff inside of an interrupt routine. A common
 way to do that without rendering the interrupt unavailable for a significant duration
 is to combine it with a tasklet. This pushes the bulk of the work off into the
 scheduler.
-
       The example below modifies the previous example to also run an additional task
+
       The example below modifies the previous example to also run an additional task
 when an interrupt is triggered.
 
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * bottomhalf.c - Top and bottom half interrupt handling 
-3 * 
-4 * Based upon the RPi example by Stefan Wendler (devnull@kaltpost.de) 
-5 * from: 
-6 *    https://github.com/wendlers/rpi-kmod-samples 
-7 * 
-8 * Press one button to turn on an LED and another to turn it off 
-9 */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * bottomhalf.c - Top and bottom half interrupt handling 
+3 * 
+4 * Based upon the RPi example by Stefan Wendler (devnull@kaltpost.de) 
+5 * from: 
+6 *    https://github.com/wendlers/rpi-kmod-samples 
+7 * 
+8 * Press one button to turn on an LED and another to turn it off 
+9 */ 
 10 
-11#include <linux/delay.h> 
-12#include <linux/gpio.h> 
-13#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-14#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-15#include <linux/module.h> 
+11#include <linux/delay.h> 
+12#include <linux/gpio.h> 
+13#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+14#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+15#include <linux/module.h> 
 16 
-17/* Macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists for compatibiity. 
-18 * See https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/ 
-19 */ 
-20#ifndef DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD 
-21#define DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(arg1, arg2) DECLARE_TASKLET(arg1, arg2, 0L) 
-22#endif 
+17/* Macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists for compatibiity. 
+18 * See https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/ 
+19 */ 
+20#ifndef DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD 
+21#define DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(arg1, arg2) DECLARE_TASKLET(arg1, arg2, 0L) 
+22#endif 
 23 
-24static int button_irqs[] = { -1, -1 }; 
+24static int button_irqs[] = { -1, -1 }; 
 25 
-26/* Define GPIOs for LEDs. 
-27 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
-28 */ 
-29static struct gpio leds[] = { { 4, GPIOF_OUT_INIT_LOW, "LED 1" } }; 
+26/* Define GPIOs for LEDs. 
+27 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
+28 */ 
+29static struct gpio leds[] = { { 4, GPIOF_OUT_INIT_LOW, "LED 1" } }; 
 30 
-31/* Define GPIOs for BUTTONS 
-32 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
-33 */ 
-34static struct gpio buttons[] = { 
-35    { 17, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 ON BUTTON" }, 
-36    { 18, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 OFF BUTTON" }, 
+31/* Define GPIOs for BUTTONS 
+32 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
+33 */ 
+34static struct gpio buttons[] = { 
+35    { 17, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 ON BUTTON" }, 
+36    { 18, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 OFF BUTTON" }, 
 37}; 
 38 
-39/* Tasklet containing some non-trivial amount of processing */ 
-40static void bottomhalf_tasklet_fn(unsigned long data) 
+39/* Tasklet containing some non-trivial amount of processing */ 
+40static void bottomhalf_tasklet_fn(unsigned long data) 
 41{ 
-42    pr_info("Bottom half tasklet starts\n"); 
-43    /* do something which takes a while */ 
+42    pr_info("Bottom half tasklet starts\n"); 
+43    /* do something which takes a while */ 
 44    mdelay(500); 
-45    pr_info("Bottom half tasklet ends\n"); 
+45    pr_info("Bottom half tasklet ends\n"); 
 46} 
 47 
-48static DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(buttontask, bottomhalf_tasklet_fn); 
+48static DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(buttontask, bottomhalf_tasklet_fn); 
 49 
-50/* interrupt function triggered when a button is pressed */ 
-51static irqreturn_t button_isr(int irq, void *data) 
+50/* interrupt function triggered when a button is pressed */ 
+51static irqreturn_t button_isr(int irq, void *data) 
 52{ 
-53    /* Do something quickly right now */ 
-54    if (irq == button_irqs[0] && !gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
+53    /* Do something quickly right now */ 
+54    if (irq == button_irqs[0] && !gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
 55        gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 1); 
-56    else if (irq == button_irqs[1] && gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
+56    else if (irq == button_irqs[1] && gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
 57        gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 0); 
 58 
-59    /* Do the rest at leisure via the scheduler */ 
+59    /* Do the rest at leisure via the scheduler */ 
 60    tasklet_schedule(&buttontask); 
 61 
-62    return IRQ_HANDLED; 
+62    return IRQ_HANDLED; 
 63} 
 64 
-65static int __init bottomhalf_init(void) 
+65static int __init bottomhalf_init(void) 
 66{ 
-67    int ret = 0; 
+67    int ret = 0; 
 68 
-69    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
+69    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
 70 
-71    /* register LED gpios */ 
+71    /* register LED gpios */ 
 72    ret = gpio_request_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 73 
-74    if (ret) { 
-75        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for LEDs: %d\n", ret); 
-76        return ret; 
+74    if (ret) { 
+75        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for LEDs: %d\n", ret); 
+76        return ret; 
 77    } 
 78 
-79    /* register BUTTON gpios */ 
+79    /* register BUTTON gpios */ 
 80    ret = gpio_request_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons)); 
 81 
-82    if (ret) { 
-83        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for BUTTONs: %d\n", ret); 
-84        goto fail1; 
+82    if (ret) { 
+83        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for BUTTONs: %d\n", ret); 
+84        goto fail1; 
 85    } 
 86 
-87    pr_info("Current button1 value: %d\n", gpio_get_value(buttons[0].gpio)); 
+87    pr_info("Current button1 value: %d\n", gpio_get_value(buttons[0].gpio)); 
 88 
 89    ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[0].gpio); 
 90 
-91    if (ret < 0) { 
-92        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-93        goto fail2; 
+91    if (ret < 0) { 
+92        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+93        goto fail2; 
 94    } 
 95 
 96    button_irqs[0] = ret; 
 97 
-98    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON1 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[0]); 
+98    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON1 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[0]); 
 99 
 100    ret = request_irq(button_irqs[0], button_isr, 
 101                      IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING, 
-102                      "gpiomod#button1", NULL); 
+102                      "gpiomod#button1", NULL); 
 103 
-104    if (ret) { 
-105        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-106        goto fail2; 
+104    if (ret) { 
+105        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+106        goto fail2; 
 107    } 
 108 
 109    ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[1].gpio); 
 110 
-111    if (ret < 0) { 
-112        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-113        goto fail2; 
+111    if (ret < 0) { 
+112        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+113        goto fail2; 
 114    } 
 115 
 116    button_irqs[1] = ret; 
 117 
-118    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON2 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[1]); 
+118    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON2 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[1]); 
 119 
 120    ret = request_irq(button_irqs[1], button_isr, 
 121                      IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING, 
-122                      "gpiomod#button2", NULL); 
+122                      "gpiomod#button2", NULL); 
 123 
-124    if (ret) { 
-125        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-126        goto fail3; 
+124    if (ret) { 
+125        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+126        goto fail3; 
 127    } 
 128 
-129    return 0; 
+129    return 0; 
 130 
-131/* cleanup what has been setup so far */ 
+131/* cleanup what has been setup so far */ 
 132fail3: 
 133    free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL); 
 134 
@@ -5216,24 +5266,24 @@ when an interrupt is triggered.
 138fail1: 
 139    gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 140 
-141    return ret; 
+141    return ret; 
 142} 
 143 
-144static void __exit bottomhalf_exit(void) 
+144static void __exit bottomhalf_exit(void) 
 145{ 
-146    int i; 
+146    int i; 
 147 
-148    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
+148    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
 149 
-150    /* free irqs */ 
+150    /* free irqs */ 
 151    free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL); 
 152    free_irq(button_irqs[1], NULL); 
 153 
-154    /* turn all LEDs off */ 
-155    for (i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE(leds); i++) 
+154    /* turn all LEDs off */ 
+155    for (i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE(leds); i++) 
 156        gpio_set_value(leds[i].gpio, 0); 
 157 
-158    /* unregister */ 
+158    /* unregister */ 
 159    gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 160    gpio_free_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons)); 
 161} 
@@ -5241,285 +5291,285 @@ when an interrupt is triggered.
 163module_init(bottomhalf_init); 
 164module_exit(bottomhalf_exit); 
 165 
-166MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-167MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Interrupt with top and bottom half");
    
-
    
+166MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+167MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Interrupt with top and bottom half");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    16    Crypto
    
-
    At the dawn of the internet, everybody trusted everybody completely…but that did
+
    At the dawn of the internet, everybody trusted everybody completely…but that did
 not work out so well. When this guide was originally written, it was a more innocent
 era in which almost nobody actually gave a damn about crypto - least of all kernel
 developers. That is certainly no longer the case now. To handle crypto stuff, the
 kernel has its own API enabling common methods of encryption, decryption and your
 favourite hash functions.
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    16.1    Hash functions
    
-
    Calculating and checking the hashes of things is a common operation. Here is a
+
    Calculating and checking the hashes of things is a common operation. Here is a
 demonstration of how to calculate a sha256 hash within a kernel module.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * cryptosha256.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <crypto/internal/hash.h> 
-5#include <linux/module.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * cryptosha256.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <crypto/internal/hash.h> 
+5#include <linux/module.h> 
 6 
-7#define SHA256_LENGTH 32 
+7#define SHA256_LENGTH 32 
 8 
-9static void show_hash_result(char *plaintext, char *hash_sha256) 
+9static void show_hash_result(char *plaintext, char *hash_sha256) 
 10{ 
-11    int i; 
-12    char str[SHA256_LENGTH * 2 + 1]; 
+11    int i; 
+12    char str[SHA256_LENGTH * 2 + 1]; 
 13 
-14    pr_info("sha256 test for string: \"%s\"\n", plaintext); 
-15    for (i = 0; i < SHA256_LENGTH; i++) 
-16        sprintf(&str[i * 2], "%02x", (unsigned char)hash_sha256[i]); 
+14    pr_info("sha256 test for string: \"%s\"\n", plaintext); 
+15    for (i = 0; i < SHA256_LENGTH; i++) 
+16        sprintf(&str[i * 2], "%02x", (unsigned char)hash_sha256[i]); 
 17    str[i * 2] = 0; 
-18    pr_info("%s\n", str); 
+18    pr_info("%s\n", str); 
 19} 
 20 
-21static int cryptosha256_init(void) 
+21static int cryptosha256_init(void) 
 22{ 
-23    char *plaintext = "This is a test"; 
-24    char hash_sha256[SHA256_LENGTH]; 
-25    struct crypto_shash *sha256; 
-26    struct shash_desc *shash; 
+23    char *plaintext = "This is a test"; 
+24    char hash_sha256[SHA256_LENGTH]; 
+25    struct crypto_shash *sha256; 
+26    struct shash_desc *shash; 
 27 
-28    sha256 = crypto_alloc_shash("sha256", 0, 0); 
-29    if (IS_ERR(sha256)) 
-30        return -1; 
+28    sha256 = crypto_alloc_shash("sha256", 0, 0); 
+29    if (IS_ERR(sha256)) 
+30        return -1; 
 31 
-32    shash = kmalloc(sizeof(struct shash_desc) + crypto_shash_descsize(sha256), 
+32    shash = kmalloc(sizeof(struct shash_desc) + crypto_shash_descsize(sha256), 
 33                    GFP_KERNEL); 
-34    if (!shash) 
-35        return -ENOMEM; 
+34    if (!shash) 
+35        return -ENOMEM; 
 36 
 37    shash->tfm = sha256; 
 38 
-39    if (crypto_shash_init(shash)) 
-40        return -1; 
+39    if (crypto_shash_init(shash)) 
+40        return -1; 
 41 
-42    if (crypto_shash_update(shash, plaintext, strlen(plaintext))) 
-43        return -1; 
+42    if (crypto_shash_update(shash, plaintext, strlen(plaintext))) 
+43        return -1; 
 44 
-45    if (crypto_shash_final(shash, hash_sha256)) 
-46        return -1; 
+45    if (crypto_shash_final(shash, hash_sha256)) 
+46        return -1; 
 47 
 48    kfree(shash); 
 49    crypto_free_shash(sha256); 
 50 
 51    show_hash_result(plaintext, hash_sha256); 
 52 
-53    return 0; 
+53    return 0; 
 54} 
 55 
-56static void cryptosha256_exit(void) 
+56static void cryptosha256_exit(void) 
 57{ 
 58} 
 59 
 60module_init(cryptosha256_init); 
 61module_exit(cryptosha256_exit); 
 62 
-63MODULE_DESCRIPTION("sha256 hash test"); 
-64MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
       Install the module:
+63MODULE_DESCRIPTION("sha256 hash test"); 
+64MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
       Install the module:
 
    
 
    
-   
    1sudo insmod cryptosha256.ko 
+   
    1sudo insmod cryptosha256.ko 
 2sudo dmesg
    
-
       And you should see that the hash was calculated for the test string.
-
       Finally, remove the test module:
+
       And you should see that the hash was calculated for the test string.
+
       Finally, remove the test module:
 
    
 
    
-   
    1sudo rmmod cryptosha256
    
-
    
+   
    1sudo rmmod cryptosha256
    
+
    
 
    
    
    16.2    Symmetric key encryption
    
-
    Here is an example of symmetrically encrypting a string using the AES algorithm
+
    Here is an example of symmetrically encrypting a string using the AES algorithm
 and a password.
 
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * cryptosk.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <crypto/internal/skcipher.h> 
-5#include <linux/crypto.h> 
-6#include <linux/module.h> 
-7#include <linux/random.h> 
-8#include <linux/scatterlist.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * cryptosk.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <crypto/internal/skcipher.h> 
+5#include <linux/crypto.h> 
+6#include <linux/module.h> 
+7#include <linux/random.h> 
+8#include <linux/scatterlist.h> 
 9 
-10#define SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH 32 
-11#define CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE 16 
+10#define SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH 32 
+11#define CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE 16 
 12 
-13struct tcrypt_result { 
-14    struct completion completion; 
-15    int err; 
+13struct tcrypt_result { 
+14    struct completion completion; 
+15    int err; 
 16}; 
 17 
-18struct skcipher_def { 
-19    struct scatterlist sg; 
-20    struct crypto_skcipher *tfm; 
-21    struct skcipher_request *req; 
-22    struct tcrypt_result result; 
-23    char *scratchpad; 
-24    char *ciphertext; 
-25    char *ivdata; 
+18struct skcipher_def { 
+19    struct scatterlist sg; 
+20    struct crypto_skcipher *tfm; 
+21    struct skcipher_request *req; 
+22    struct tcrypt_result result; 
+23    char *scratchpad; 
+24    char *ciphertext; 
+25    char *ivdata; 
 26}; 
 27 
-28static struct skcipher_def sk; 
+28static struct skcipher_def sk; 
 29 
-30static void test_skcipher_finish(struct skcipher_def *sk) 
+30static void test_skcipher_finish(struct skcipher_def *sk) 
 31{ 
-32    if (sk->tfm) 
+32    if (sk->tfm) 
 33        crypto_free_skcipher(sk->tfm); 
-34    if (sk->req) 
+34    if (sk->req) 
 35        skcipher_request_free(sk->req); 
-36    if (sk->ivdata) 
+36    if (sk->ivdata) 
 37        kfree(sk->ivdata); 
-38    if (sk->scratchpad) 
+38    if (sk->scratchpad) 
 39        kfree(sk->scratchpad); 
-40    if (sk->ciphertext) 
+40    if (sk->ciphertext) 
 41        kfree(sk->ciphertext); 
 42} 
 43 
-44static int test_skcipher_result(struct skcipher_def *sk, int rc) 
+44static int test_skcipher_result(struct skcipher_def *sk, int rc) 
 45{ 
-46    switch (rc) { 
-47    case 0: 
-48        break; 
-49    case -EINPROGRESS || -EBUSY: 
+46    switch (rc) { 
+47    case 0: 
+48        break; 
+49    case -EINPROGRESS || -EBUSY: 
 50        rc = wait_for_completion_interruptible(&sk->result.completion); 
-51        if (!rc && !sk->result.err) { 
+51        if (!rc && !sk->result.err) { 
 52            reinit_completion(&sk->result.completion); 
-53            break; 
+53            break; 
 54        } 
-55        pr_info("skcipher encrypt returned with %d result %d\n", rc, 
+55        pr_info("skcipher encrypt returned with %d result %d\n", rc, 
 56                sk->result.err); 
-57        break; 
-58    default: 
-59        pr_info("skcipher encrypt returned with %d result %d\n", rc, 
+57        break; 
+58    default: 
+59        pr_info("skcipher encrypt returned with %d result %d\n", rc, 
 60                sk->result.err); 
-61        break; 
+61        break; 
 62    } 
 63 
 64    init_completion(&sk->result.completion); 
 65 
-66    return rc; 
+66    return rc; 
 67} 
 68 
-69static void test_skcipher_callback(struct crypto_async_request *req, int error) 
+69static void test_skcipher_callback(struct crypto_async_request *req, int error) 
 70{ 
-71    struct tcrypt_result *result = req->data; 
+71    struct tcrypt_result *result = req->data; 
 72 
-73    if (error == -EINPROGRESS) 
-74        return; 
+73    if (error == -EINPROGRESS) 
+74        return; 
 75 
 76    result->err = error; 
 77    complete(&result->completion); 
-78    pr_info("Encryption finished successfully\n"); 
+78    pr_info("Encryption finished successfully\n"); 
 79 
-80    /* decrypt data */ 
-81#if 0 
-82    memset((void*)sk.scratchpad, '-', CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
-83    ret = crypto_skcipher_decrypt(sk.req); 
-84    ret = test_skcipher_result(&sk, ret); 
-85    if (ret) 
-86        return; 
+80    /* decrypt data */ 
+81#if 0 
+82    memset((void*)sk.scratchpad, '-', CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
+83    ret = crypto_skcipher_decrypt(sk.req); 
+84    ret = test_skcipher_result(&sk, ret); 
+85    if (ret) 
+86        return; 
 87 
-88    sg_copy_from_buffer(&sk.sg, 1, sk.scratchpad, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
-89    sk.scratchpad[CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE-1] = 0; 
+88    sg_copy_from_buffer(&sk.sg, 1, sk.scratchpad, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
+89    sk.scratchpad[CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE-1] = 0; 
 90 
-91    pr_info("Decryption request successful\n"); 
-92    pr_info("Decrypted: %s\n", sk.scratchpad); 
-93#endif 
+91    pr_info("Decryption request successful\n"); 
+92    pr_info("Decrypted: %s\n", sk.scratchpad); 
+93#endif 
 94} 
 95 
-96static int test_skcipher_encrypt(char *plaintext, char *password, 
-97                                 struct skcipher_def *sk) 
+96static int test_skcipher_encrypt(char *plaintext, char *password, 
+97                                 struct skcipher_def *sk) 
 98{ 
-99    int ret = -EFAULT; 
-100    unsigned char key[SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH]; 
+99    int ret = -EFAULT; 
+100    unsigned char key[SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH]; 
 101 
-102    if (!sk->tfm) { 
-103        sk->tfm = crypto_alloc_skcipher("cbc-aes-aesni", 0, 0); 
-104        if (IS_ERR(sk->tfm)) { 
-105            pr_info("could not allocate skcipher handle\n"); 
-106            return PTR_ERR(sk->tfm); 
+102    if (!sk->tfm) { 
+103        sk->tfm = crypto_alloc_skcipher("cbc-aes-aesni", 0, 0); 
+104        if (IS_ERR(sk->tfm)) { 
+105            pr_info("could not allocate skcipher handle\n"); 
+106            return PTR_ERR(sk->tfm); 
 107        } 
 108    } 
 109 
-110    if (!sk->req) { 
+110    if (!sk->req) { 
 111        sk->req = skcipher_request_alloc(sk->tfm, GFP_KERNEL); 
-112        if (!sk->req) { 
-113            pr_info("could not allocate skcipher request\n"); 
+112        if (!sk->req) { 
+113            pr_info("could not allocate skcipher request\n"); 
 114            ret = -ENOMEM; 
-115            goto out; 
+115            goto out; 
 116        } 
 117    } 
 118 
 119    skcipher_request_set_callback(sk->req, CRYPTO_TFM_REQ_MAY_BACKLOG, 
 120                                  test_skcipher_callback, &sk->result); 
 121 
-122    /* clear the key */ 
-123    memset((void *)key, '\0', SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH); 
+122    /* clear the key */ 
+123    memset((void *)key, '\0', SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH); 
 124 
-125    /* Use the world's favourite password */ 
-126    sprintf((char *)key, "%s", password); 
+125    /* Use the world's favourite password */ 
+126    sprintf((char *)key, "%s", password); 
 127 
-128    /* AES 256 with given symmetric key */ 
-129    if (crypto_skcipher_setkey(sk->tfm, key, SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH)) { 
-130        pr_info("key could not be set\n"); 
+128    /* AES 256 with given symmetric key */ 
+129    if (crypto_skcipher_setkey(sk->tfm, key, SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH)) { 
+130        pr_info("key could not be set\n"); 
 131        ret = -EAGAIN; 
-132        goto out; 
+132        goto out; 
 133    } 
-134    pr_info("Symmetric key: %s\n", key); 
-135    pr_info("Plaintext: %s\n", plaintext); 
+134    pr_info("Symmetric key: %s\n", key); 
+135    pr_info("Plaintext: %s\n", plaintext); 
 136 
-137    if (!sk->ivdata) { 
-138        /* see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initialization_vector */ 
+137    if (!sk->ivdata) { 
+138        /* see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initialization_vector */ 
 139        sk->ivdata = kmalloc(CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE, GFP_KERNEL); 
-140        if (!sk->ivdata) { 
-141            pr_info("could not allocate ivdata\n"); 
-142            goto out; 
+140        if (!sk->ivdata) { 
+141            pr_info("could not allocate ivdata\n"); 
+142            goto out; 
 143        } 
 144        get_random_bytes(sk->ivdata, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
 145    } 
 146 
-147    if (!sk->scratchpad) { 
-148        /* The text to be encrypted */ 
+147    if (!sk->scratchpad) { 
+148        /* The text to be encrypted */ 
 149        sk->scratchpad = kmalloc(CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE, GFP_KERNEL); 
-150        if (!sk->scratchpad) { 
-151            pr_info("could not allocate scratchpad\n"); 
-152            goto out; 
+150        if (!sk->scratchpad) { 
+151            pr_info("could not allocate scratchpad\n"); 
+152            goto out; 
 153        } 
 154    } 
-155    sprintf((char *)sk->scratchpad, "%s", plaintext); 
+155    sprintf((char *)sk->scratchpad, "%s", plaintext); 
 156 
 157    sg_init_one(&sk->sg, sk->scratchpad, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
 158    skcipher_request_set_crypt(sk->req, &sk->sg, &sk->sg, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE, 
 159                               sk->ivdata); 
 160    init_completion(&sk->result.completion); 
 161 
-162    /* encrypt data */ 
+162    /* encrypt data */ 
 163    ret = crypto_skcipher_encrypt(sk->req); 
 164    ret = test_skcipher_result(sk, ret); 
-165    if (ret) 
-166        goto out; 
+165    if (ret) 
+166        goto out; 
 167 
-168    pr_info("Encryption request successful\n"); 
+168    pr_info("Encryption request successful\n"); 
 169 
 170out: 
-171    return ret; 
+171    return ret; 
 172} 
 173 
-174static int cryptoapi_init(void) 
+174static int cryptoapi_init(void) 
 175{ 
-176    /* The world's favorite password */ 
-177    char *password = "password123"; 
+176    /* The world's favorite password */ 
+177    char *password = "password123"; 
 178 
 179    sk.tfm = NULL; 
 180    sk.req = NULL; 
@@ -5527,11 +5577,11 @@ and a password.
 182    sk.ciphertext = NULL; 
 183    sk.ivdata = NULL; 
 184 
-185    test_skcipher_encrypt("Testing", password, &sk); 
-186    return 0; 
+185    test_skcipher_encrypt("Testing", password, &sk); 
+186    return 0; 
 187} 
 188 
-189static void cryptoapi_exit(void) 
+189static void cryptoapi_exit(void) 
 190{ 
 191    test_skcipher_finish(&sk); 
 192} 
@@ -5539,12 +5589,12 @@ and a password.
 194module_init(cryptoapi_init); 
 195module_exit(cryptoapi_exit); 
 196 
-197MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Symmetric key encryption example"); 
-198MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
    
+197MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Symmetric key encryption example"); 
+198MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    17    Virtual Input Device Driver
    
-
    The input device driver is a module that provides a way to communicate
+
    The input device driver is a module that provides a way to communicate
 with the interaction device via the event. For example, the keyboard
 can send the press or release event to tell the kernel what we want to
 do. The input device driver will allocate a new input structure with
@@ -5552,7 +5602,7 @@ do. The input device driver will allocate a new input structure with
  and sets up input bitfields, device id, version, etc. After that, registers it by calling
  input_register_device()
 .
-
       Here is an example, vinput, It is an API to allow easy
+
       Here is an example, vinput, It is an API to allow easy
 development of virtual input drivers. The drivers needs to export a
  vinput_device()
  that contains the virtual device name and
@@ -5568,7 +5618,7 @@ development of virtual input drivers. The drivers needs to export a
      
      
  • the readback function:   read()
      
    • 
-
       Then using   vinput_register_device()
+
       Then using   vinput_register_device()
  and   vinput_unregister_device()
  will add a new device to the list of support virtual input devices.
 
    
@@ -5576,489 +5626,518 @@ development of virtual input drivers. The drivers needs to export a
 
                                                                   
 
    
-   
    1int init(struct vinput *);
    
-
       This function is passed a   struct vinput
- already initialized with an allocated   struct input_dev
+   
    1int init(struct vinput *);
    
+
       This function is passed a   struct vinput
+ already initialized with an allocated   struct input_dev
 . The   init()
  function is responsible for initializing the capabilities of the input device and register
 it.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1int send(struct vinput *, char *, int);
    
-
       This function will receive a user string to interpret and inject the event using the
+   
    1int send(struct vinput *, char *, int);
    
+
       This function will receive a user string to interpret and inject the event using the
  input_report_XXXX
  or   input_event
  call. The string is already copied from user.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1int read(struct vinput *, char *, int);
    
-
       This function is used for debugging and should fill the buffer parameter with the
+   
    1int read(struct vinput *, char *, int);
    
+
       This function is used for debugging and should fill the buffer parameter with the
 last event sent in the virtual input device format. The buffer will then be copied to
 user.
-
       vinput devices are created and destroyed using sysfs. And, event injection is
-done through a /dev node. The device name will be used by the userland to
-export a new virtual input device. To create a vinputX sysfs entry and /dev
-node.
+
       vinput devices are created and destroyed using sysfs. And, event injection is done
+through a /dev node. The device name will be used by the userland to export a new
+virtual input device.
+
       The   class_attribute
+ structure is similar to other attribute types we talked about in section 8:
 
    
 
    
-   
    1echo "vkbd" | sudo tee /sys/class/vinput/export
    
-
       To unexport the device, just echo its id in unexport:
+   
    1struct class_attribute { 
+2    struct attribute attr; 
+3    ssize_t (*show)(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
+4                    char *buf); 
+5    ssize_t (*store)(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
+6                    const char *buf, size_t count); 
+7};
    
+
       In vinput.c, the macro   CLASS_ATTR_WO(export/unexport)
+ defined in include/linux/device.h (in this case, device.h is included in include/linux/input.h)
+will generate the   class_attribute
+ structures which are named class_attr_export/unexport. Then, put them into
+ vinput_class_attrs
+ array and the macro   ATTRIBUTE_GROUPS(vinput_class)
+ will generate the   struct attribute_group vinput_class_group
+ that should be assigned in   vinput_class
+. Finally, call   class_register(&vinput_class)
+ to create attributes in sysfs.
+
       To create a vinputX sysfs entry and /dev node.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1echo "0" | sudo tee /sys/class/vinput/unexport
    
-
-
    
-
    
-   
    1#ifndef VINPUT_H 
-2#define VINPUT_H 
-3 
-4#include <linux/input.h> 
-5#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
-6 
-7#define VINPUT_MAX_LEN 128 
-8#define MAX_VINPUT 32 
-9#define VINPUT_MINORS MAX_VINPUT 
-10 
-11#define dev_to_vinput(dev) container_of(dev, struct vinput, dev) 
-12 
-13struct vinput_device; 
-14 
-15struct vinput { 
-16    long id; 
-17    long devno; 
-18    long last_entry; 
-19    spinlock_t lock; 
-20 
-21    void *priv_data; 
-22 
-23    struct device dev; 
-24    struct list_head list; 
-25    struct input_dev *input; 
-26    struct vinput_device *type; 
-27}; 
-28 
-29struct vinput_ops { 
-30    int (*init)(struct vinput *); 
-31    int (*kill)(struct vinput *); 
-32    int (*send)(struct vinput *, char *, int); 
-33    int (*read)(struct vinput *, char *, int); 
-34}; 
-35 
-36struct vinput_device { 
-37    char name[16]; 
-38    struct list_head list; 
-39    struct vinput_ops *ops; 
-40}; 
-41 
-42int vinput_register(struct vinput_device *dev); 
-43void vinput_unregister(struct vinput_device *dev); 
-44 
-45#endif
    
-
-
    
-
    
-   
    1#include <linux/cdev.h> 
-2#include <linux/input.h> 
-3#include <linux/module.h> 
-4#include <linux/slab.h> 
-5#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
-6 
-7#include <asm/uaccess.h> 
-8 
-9#include "vinput.h" 
-10 
-11#define DRIVER_NAME "vinput" 
-12 
-13#define dev_to_vinput(dev) container_of(dev, struct vinput, dev) 
-14 
-15static DECLARE_BITMAP(vinput_ids, VINPUT_MINORS); 
-16 
-17static LIST_HEAD(vinput_devices); 
-18static LIST_HEAD(vinput_vdevices); 
-19 
-20static int vinput_dev; 
-21static struct spinlock vinput_lock; 
-22static struct class vinput_class; 
-23 
-24/* Search the name of vinput device in the vinput_devices linked list, 
-25 * which added at vinput_register(). 
-26 */ 
-27static struct vinput_device *vinput_get_device_by_type(const char *type) 
-28{ 
-29    int found = 0; 
-30    struct vinput_device *vinput; 
-31    struct list_head *curr; 
-32 
-33    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-34    list_for_each (curr, &vinput_devices) { 
-35        vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput_device, list); 
-36        if (vinput && strncmp(type, vinput->name, strlen(vinput->name)) == 0) { 
-37            found = 1; 
-38            break; 
-39        } 
-40    } 
-41    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-42 
-43    if (found) 
-44        return vinput; 
-45    return ERR_PTR(-ENODEV); 
-46} 
-47 
-48/* Search the id of virtual device in the vinput_vdevices linked list, 
-49 * which added at vinput_alloc_vdevice(). 
-50 */ 
-51static struct vinput *vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(long id) 
-52{ 
-53    struct vinput *vinput = NULL; 
-54    struct list_head *curr; 
-55 
-56    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-57    list_for_each (curr, &vinput_vdevices) { 
-58        vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput, list); 
-59        if (vinput && vinput->id == id) 
-60            break; 
-61    } 
-62    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-63 
-64    if (vinput && vinput->id == id) 
-65        return vinput; 
-66    return ERR_PTR(-ENODEV); 
-67} 
-68 
-69static int vinput_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
-70{ 
-71    int err = 0; 
-72    struct vinput *vinput = NULL; 
-73 
-74    vinput = vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(iminor(inode)); 
-75 
-76    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) 
-77        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
-78    else 
-79        file->private_data = vinput; 
-80 
-81    return err; 
-82} 
-83 
-84static int vinput_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
-85{ 
-86    return 0; 
-87} 
-88 
-89static ssize_t vinput_read(struct file *file, char __user *buffer, size_t count, 
-90                           loff_t *offset) 
-91{ 
-92    int len; 
-93    char buff[VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1]; 
-94    struct vinput *vinput = file->private_data; 
-95 
-96    len = vinput->type->ops->read(vinput, buff, count); 
-97 
-98    if (*offset > len) 
-99        count = 0; 
-100    else if (count + *offset > VINPUT_MAX_LEN) 
-101        count = len - *offset; 
-102 
-103    if (raw_copy_to_user(buffer, buff + *offset, count)) 
-104        count = -EFAULT; 
-105 
-106    *offset += count; 
-107 
-108    return count; 
-109} 
-110 
-111static ssize_t vinput_write(struct file *file, const char __user *buffer, 
-112                            size_t count, loff_t *offset) 
-113{ 
-114    char buff[VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1]; 
-115    struct vinput *vinput = file->private_data; 
-116 
-117    memset(buff, 0, sizeof(char) * (VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1)); 
-118 
-119    if (count > VINPUT_MAX_LEN) { 
-120        dev_warn(&vinput->dev, "Too long. %d bytes allowed\n", VINPUT_MAX_LEN); 
-121        return -EINVAL; 
-122    } 
-123 
-124    if (raw_copy_from_user(buff, buffer, count)) 
-125        return -EFAULT; 
-126 
-127    return vinput->type->ops->send(vinput, buff, count); 
-128} 
-129 
-130static const struct file_operations vinput_fops = { 
-131    .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
-132    .open = vinput_open, 
-133    .release = vinput_release, 
-134    .read = vinput_read, 
-135    .write = vinput_write, 
-136}; 
-137 
-138static void vinput_unregister_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
-139{ 
-140    input_unregister_device(vinput->input); 
-141    if (vinput->type->ops->kill) 
-142        vinput->type->ops->kill(vinput); 
-143} 
-144 
-145static void vinput_destroy_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
-146{ 
-147    /* Remove from the list first */ 
-148    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-149    list_del(&vinput->list); 
-150    clear_bit(vinput->id, vinput_ids); 
-151    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-152 
-153    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
-154 
-155    kfree(vinput); 
-156} 
-157 
-158static void vinput_release_dev(struct device *dev) 
-159{ 
-160    struct vinput *vinput = dev_to_vinput(dev); 
-161    int id = vinput->id; 
-162 
-163    vinput_destroy_vdevice(vinput); 
-164 
-165    pr_debug("released vinput%d.\n", id); 
-166} 
-167 
-168static struct vinput *vinput_alloc_vdevice(void) 
-169{ 
-170    int err; 
-171    struct vinput *vinput = kzalloc(sizeof(struct vinput), GFP_KERNEL); 
-172 
-173    try_module_get(THIS_MODULE); 
-174 
-175    memset(vinput, 0, sizeof(struct vinput)); 
-176 
-177    spin_lock_init(&vinput->lock); 
-178 
-179    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-180    vinput->id = find_first_zero_bit(vinput_ids, VINPUT_MINORS); 
-181    if (vinput->id >= VINPUT_MINORS) { 
-182        err = -ENOBUFS; 
-183        goto fail_id; 
-184    } 
-185    set_bit(vinput->id, vinput_ids); 
-186    list_add(&vinput->list, &vinput_vdevices); 
-187    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-188 
-189    /* allocate the input device */ 
-190    vinput->input = input_allocate_device(); 
-191    if (vinput->input == NULL) { 
-192        pr_err("vinput: Cannot allocate vinput input device\n"); 
-193        err = -ENOMEM; 
-194        goto fail_input_dev; 
-195    } 
-196 
-197    /* initialize device */ 
-198    vinput->dev.class = &vinput_class; 
-199    vinput->dev.release = vinput_release_dev; 
-200    vinput->dev.devt = MKDEV(vinput_dev, vinput->id); 
-201    dev_set_name(&vinput->dev, DRIVER_NAME "%lu", vinput->id); 
-202 
-203    return vinput; 
-204 
-205fail_input_dev: 
-206    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-207    list_del(&vinput->list); 
-208fail_id: 
-209    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-210    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
-211    kfree(vinput); 
-212 
-213    return ERR_PTR(err); 
-214} 
-215 
-216static int vinput_register_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
-217{ 
-218    int err = 0; 
-219 
-220    /* register the input device */ 
-221    vinput->input->name = vinput->type->name; 
-222    vinput->input->phys = "vinput"; 
-223    vinput->input->dev.parent = &vinput->dev; 
-224 
-225    vinput->input->id.bustype = BUS_VIRTUAL; 
-226    vinput->input->id.product = 0x0000; 
-227    vinput->input->id.vendor = 0x0000; 
-228    vinput->input->id.version = 0x0000; 
-229 
-230    err = vinput->type->ops->init(vinput); 
-231 
-232    if (err == 0) 
-233        dev_info(&vinput->dev, "Registered virtual input %s %ld\n", 
-234                 vinput->type->name, vinput->id); 
-235 
-236    return err; 
-237} 
-238 
-239static ssize_t export_store(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
-240                            const char *buf, size_t len) 
-241{ 
-242    int err; 
-243    struct vinput *vinput; 
-244    struct vinput_device *device; 
-245 
-246    device = vinput_get_device_by_type(buf); 
-247    if (IS_ERR(device)) { 
-248        pr_info("vinput: This virtual device isn't registered\n"); 
-249        err = PTR_ERR(device); 
-250        goto fail; 
-251    } 
-252 
-253    vinput = vinput_alloc_vdevice(); 
-254    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) { 
-255        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
-256        goto fail; 
-257    } 
-258 
-259    vinput->type = device; 
-260    err = device_register(&vinput->dev); 
-261    if (err < 0) 
-262        goto fail_register; 
-263 
-264    err = vinput_register_vdevice(vinput); 
-265    if (err < 0) 
-266        goto fail_register_vinput; 
-267 
-268    return len; 
-269 
-270fail_register_vinput: 
-271    device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
-272fail_register: 
-273    vinput_destroy_vdevice(vinput); 
-274fail: 
-275    return err; 
-276} 
-277/* This macro generates class_attr_export structure and export_store() */ 
-278static CLASS_ATTR_WO(export); 
-279 
-280static ssize_t unexport_store(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
-281                              const char *buf, size_t len) 
-282{ 
-283    int err; 
-284    unsigned long id; 
-285    struct vinput *vinput; 
-286 
-287    err = kstrtol(buf, 10, &id); 
-288    if (err) { 
-289        err = -EINVAL; 
-290        goto failed; 
-291    } 
-292 
-293    vinput = vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(id); 
-294    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) { 
-295        pr_err("vinput: No such vinput device %ld\n", id); 
-296        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
-297        goto failed; 
-298    } 
-299 
-300    vinput_unregister_vdevice(vinput); 
-301    device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
-302 
-303    return len; 
-304failed: 
-305    return err; 
-306} 
-307/* This macro generates class_attr_unexport structure and unexport_store() */ 
-308static CLASS_ATTR_WO(unexport); 
-309 
-310static struct attribute *vinput_class_attrs[] = { 
-311    &class_attr_export.attr, 
-312    &class_attr_unexport.attr, 
-313    NULL, 
-314}; 
-315 
-316/* This macro generates vinput_class_groups structure */ 
-317ATTRIBUTE_GROUPS(vinput_class); 
-318 
-319static struct class vinput_class = { 
-320    .name = "vinput", 
-321    .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
-322    .class_groups = vinput_class_groups, 
-323}; 
-324 
-325int vinput_register(struct vinput_device *dev) 
-326{ 
-327    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-328    list_add(&dev->list, &vinput_devices); 
-329    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-330 
-331    pr_info("vinput: registered new virtual input device '%s'\n", dev->name); 
-332 
-333    return 0; 
-334} 
-335EXPORT_SYMBOL(vinput_register); 
-336 
-337void vinput_unregister(struct vinput_device *dev) 
-338{ 
-339    struct list_head *curr, *next; 
-340 
-341    /* Remove from the list first */ 
-342    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-343    list_del(&dev->list); 
-344    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-345 
-346    /* unregister all devices of this type */ 
-347    list_for_each_safe (curr, next, &vinput_vdevices) { 
-348        struct vinput *vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput, list); 
-349        if (vinput && vinput->type == dev) { 
-350            vinput_unregister_vdevice(vinput); 
-351            device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
-352        } 
-353    } 
-354 
-355    pr_info("vinput: unregistered virtual input device '%s'\n", dev->name); 
-356} 
-357EXPORT_SYMBOL(vinput_unregister); 
-358 
-359static int __init vinput_init(void) 
-360{ 
-361    int err = 0; 
-362 
-363    pr_info("vinput: Loading virtual input driver\n"); 
-364 
-365    vinput_dev = register_chrdev(0, DRIVER_NAME, &vinput_fops); 
-366    if (vinput_dev < 0) { 
-367        pr_err("vinput: Unable to allocate char dev region\n"); 
-368        goto failed_alloc; 
-369    } 
-370 
-371    spin_lock_init(&vinput_lock); 
-372 
-373    err = class_register(&vinput_class); 
-374    if (err < 0) { 
-375        pr_err("vinput: Unable to register vinput class\n"); 
-376        goto failed_class; 
-377    } 
-378 
-379    return 0; 
-380failed_class: 
-381    class_unregister(&vinput_class); 
-382failed_alloc: 
-383    return err; 
-384} 
-385 
-386static void __exit vinput_end(void) 
-387{ 
-388    pr_info("vinput: Unloading virtual input driver\n"); 
-389 
-390    unregister_chrdev(vinput_dev, DRIVER_NAME); 
-391    class_unregister(&vinput_class); 
-392} 
-393 
-394module_init(vinput_init); 
-395module_exit(vinput_end); 
-396 
-397MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-398MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Emulate input events");
    
+   
    1echo "vkbd" | sudo tee /sys/class/vinput/export
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
       Here the virtual keyboard is one of example to use vinput. It supports all
+
       To unexport the device, just echo its id in unexport:
+
    
+
    
+   
    1echo "0" | sudo tee /sys/class/vinput/unexport
    
+
+
    
+
    
+   
    1/* 
+2 * vinput.h 
+3 */ 
+4 
+5#ifndef VINPUT_H 
+6#define VINPUT_H 
+7 
+8#include <linux/input.h> 
+9#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
+10 
+11#define VINPUT_MAX_LEN 128 
+12#define MAX_VINPUT 32 
+13#define VINPUT_MINORS MAX_VINPUT 
+14 
+15#define dev_to_vinput(dev) container_of(dev, struct vinput, dev) 
+16 
+17struct vinput_device; 
+18 
+19struct vinput { 
+20    long id; 
+21    long devno; 
+22    long last_entry; 
+23    spinlock_t lock; 
+24 
+25    void *priv_data; 
+26 
+27    struct device dev; 
+28    struct list_head list; 
+29    struct input_dev *input; 
+30    struct vinput_device *type; 
+31}; 
+32 
+33struct vinput_ops { 
+34    int (*init)(struct vinput *); 
+35    int (*kill)(struct vinput *); 
+36    int (*send)(struct vinput *, char *, int); 
+37    int (*read)(struct vinput *, char *, int); 
+38}; 
+39 
+40struct vinput_device { 
+41    char name[16]; 
+42    struct list_head list; 
+43    struct vinput_ops *ops; 
+44}; 
+45 
+46int vinput_register(struct vinput_device *dev); 
+47void vinput_unregister(struct vinput_device *dev); 
+48 
+49#endif
    
+
+
    
+
    
+   
    1/* 
+2 * vinput.c 
+3 */ 
+4 
+5#include <linux/cdev.h> 
+6#include <linux/input.h> 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
+8#include <linux/slab.h> 
+9#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
+10 
+11#include <asm/uaccess.h> 
+12 
+13#include "vinput.h" 
+14 
+15#define DRIVER_NAME "vinput" 
+16 
+17#define dev_to_vinput(dev) container_of(dev, struct vinput, dev) 
+18 
+19static DECLARE_BITMAP(vinput_ids, VINPUT_MINORS); 
+20 
+21static LIST_HEAD(vinput_devices); 
+22static LIST_HEAD(vinput_vdevices); 
+23 
+24static int vinput_dev; 
+25static struct spinlock vinput_lock; 
+26static struct class vinput_class; 
+27 
+28/* Search the name of vinput device in the vinput_devices linked list, 
+29 * which added at vinput_register(). 
+30 */ 
+31static struct vinput_device *vinput_get_device_by_type(const char *type) 
+32{ 
+33    int found = 0; 
+34    struct vinput_device *vinput; 
+35    struct list_head *curr; 
+36 
+37    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+38    list_for_each (curr, &vinput_devices) { 
+39        vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput_device, list); 
+40        if (vinput && strncmp(type, vinput->name, strlen(vinput->name)) == 0) { 
+41            found = 1; 
+42            break; 
+43        } 
+44    } 
+45    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+46 
+47    if (found) 
+48        return vinput; 
+49    return ERR_PTR(-ENODEV); 
+50} 
+51 
+52/* Search the id of virtual device in the vinput_vdevices linked list, 
+53 * which added at vinput_alloc_vdevice(). 
+54 */ 
+55static struct vinput *vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(long id) 
+56{ 
+57    struct vinput *vinput = NULL; 
+58    struct list_head *curr; 
+59 
+60    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+61    list_for_each (curr, &vinput_vdevices) { 
+62        vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput, list); 
+63        if (vinput && vinput->id == id) 
+64            break; 
+65    } 
+66    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+67 
+68    if (vinput && vinput->id == id) 
+69        return vinput; 
+70    return ERR_PTR(-ENODEV); 
+71} 
+72 
+73static int vinput_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+74{ 
+75    int err = 0; 
+76    struct vinput *vinput = NULL; 
+77 
+78    vinput = vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(iminor(inode)); 
+79 
+80    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) 
+81        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
+82    else 
+83        file->private_data = vinput; 
+84 
+85    return err; 
+86} 
+87 
+88static int vinput_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+89{ 
+90    return 0; 
+91} 
+92 
+93static ssize_t vinput_read(struct file *file, char __user *buffer, size_t count, 
+94                           loff_t *offset) 
+95{ 
+96    int len; 
+97    char buff[VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1]; 
+98    struct vinput *vinput = file->private_data; 
+99 
+100    len = vinput->type->ops->read(vinput, buff, count); 
+101 
+102    if (*offset > len) 
+103        count = 0; 
+104    else if (count + *offset > VINPUT_MAX_LEN) 
+105        count = len - *offset; 
+106 
+107    if (raw_copy_to_user(buffer, buff + *offset, count)) 
+108        count = -EFAULT; 
+109 
+110    *offset += count; 
+111 
+112    return count; 
+113} 
+114 
+115static ssize_t vinput_write(struct file *file, const char __user *buffer, 
+116                            size_t count, loff_t *offset) 
+117{ 
+118    char buff[VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1]; 
+119    struct vinput *vinput = file->private_data; 
+120 
+121    memset(buff, 0, sizeof(char) * (VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1)); 
+122 
+123    if (count > VINPUT_MAX_LEN) { 
+124        dev_warn(&vinput->dev, "Too long. %d bytes allowed\n", VINPUT_MAX_LEN); 
+125        return -EINVAL; 
+126    } 
+127 
+128    if (raw_copy_from_user(buff, buffer, count)) 
+129        return -EFAULT; 
+130 
+131    return vinput->type->ops->send(vinput, buff, count); 
+132} 
+133 
+134static const struct file_operations vinput_fops = { 
+135    .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
+136    .open = vinput_open, 
+137    .release = vinput_release, 
+138    .read = vinput_read, 
+139    .write = vinput_write, 
+140}; 
+141 
+142static void vinput_unregister_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
+143{ 
+144    input_unregister_device(vinput->input); 
+145    if (vinput->type->ops->kill) 
+146        vinput->type->ops->kill(vinput); 
+147} 
+148 
+149static void vinput_destroy_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
+150{ 
+151    /* Remove from the list first */ 
+152    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+153    list_del(&vinput->list); 
+154    clear_bit(vinput->id, vinput_ids); 
+155    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+156 
+157    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
+158 
+159    kfree(vinput); 
+160} 
+161 
+162static void vinput_release_dev(struct device *dev) 
+163{ 
+164    struct vinput *vinput = dev_to_vinput(dev); 
+165    int id = vinput->id; 
+166 
+167    vinput_destroy_vdevice(vinput); 
+168 
+169    pr_debug("released vinput%d.\n", id); 
+170} 
+171 
+172static struct vinput *vinput_alloc_vdevice(void) 
+173{ 
+174    int err; 
+175    struct vinput *vinput = kzalloc(sizeof(struct vinput), GFP_KERNEL); 
+176 
+177    try_module_get(THIS_MODULE); 
+178 
+179    memset(vinput, 0, sizeof(struct vinput)); 
+180 
+181    spin_lock_init(&vinput->lock); 
+182 
+183    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+184    vinput->id = find_first_zero_bit(vinput_ids, VINPUT_MINORS); 
+185    if (vinput->id >= VINPUT_MINORS) { 
+186        err = -ENOBUFS; 
+187        goto fail_id; 
+188    } 
+189    set_bit(vinput->id, vinput_ids); 
+190    list_add(&vinput->list, &vinput_vdevices); 
+191    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+192 
+193    /* allocate the input device */ 
+194    vinput->input = input_allocate_device(); 
+195    if (vinput->input == NULL) { 
+196        pr_err("vinput: Cannot allocate vinput input device\n"); 
+197        err = -ENOMEM; 
+198        goto fail_input_dev; 
+199    } 
+200 
+201    /* initialize device */ 
+202    vinput->dev.class = &vinput_class; 
+203    vinput->dev.release = vinput_release_dev; 
+204    vinput->dev.devt = MKDEV(vinput_dev, vinput->id); 
+205    dev_set_name(&vinput->dev, DRIVER_NAME "%lu", vinput->id); 
+206 
+207    return vinput; 
+208 
+209fail_input_dev: 
+210    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+211    list_del(&vinput->list); 
+212fail_id: 
+213    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+214    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
+215    kfree(vinput); 
+216 
+217    return ERR_PTR(err); 
+218} 
+219 
+220static int vinput_register_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
+221{ 
+222    int err = 0; 
+223 
+224    /* register the input device */ 
+225    vinput->input->name = vinput->type->name; 
+226    vinput->input->phys = "vinput"; 
+227    vinput->input->dev.parent = &vinput->dev; 
+228 
+229    vinput->input->id.bustype = BUS_VIRTUAL; 
+230    vinput->input->id.product = 0x0000; 
+231    vinput->input->id.vendor = 0x0000; 
+232    vinput->input->id.version = 0x0000; 
+233 
+234    err = vinput->type->ops->init(vinput); 
+235 
+236    if (err == 0) 
+237        dev_info(&vinput->dev, "Registered virtual input %s %ld\n", 
+238                 vinput->type->name, vinput->id); 
+239 
+240    return err; 
+241} 
+242 
+243static ssize_t export_store(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
+244                            const char *buf, size_t len) 
+245{ 
+246    int err; 
+247    struct vinput *vinput; 
+248    struct vinput_device *device; 
+249 
+250    device = vinput_get_device_by_type(buf); 
+251    if (IS_ERR(device)) { 
+252        pr_info("vinput: This virtual device isn't registered\n"); 
+253        err = PTR_ERR(device); 
+254        goto fail; 
+255    } 
+256 
+257    vinput = vinput_alloc_vdevice(); 
+258    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) { 
+259        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
+260        goto fail; 
+261    } 
+262 
+263    vinput->type = device; 
+264    err = device_register(&vinput->dev); 
+265    if (err < 0) 
+266        goto fail_register; 
+267 
+268    err = vinput_register_vdevice(vinput); 
+269    if (err < 0) 
+270        goto fail_register_vinput; 
+271 
+272    return len; 
+273 
+274fail_register_vinput: 
+275    device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
+276fail_register: 
+277    vinput_destroy_vdevice(vinput); 
+278fail: 
+279    return err; 
+280} 
+281/* This macro generates class_attr_export structure and export_store() */ 
+282static CLASS_ATTR_WO(export); 
+283 
+284static ssize_t unexport_store(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
+285                              const char *buf, size_t len) 
+286{ 
+287    int err; 
+288    unsigned long id; 
+289    struct vinput *vinput; 
+290 
+291    err = kstrtol(buf, 10, &id); 
+292    if (err) { 
+293        err = -EINVAL; 
+294        goto failed; 
+295    } 
+296 
+297    vinput = vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(id); 
+298    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) { 
+299        pr_err("vinput: No such vinput device %ld\n", id); 
+300        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
+301        goto failed; 
+302    } 
+303 
+304    vinput_unregister_vdevice(vinput); 
+305    device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
+306 
+307    return len; 
+308failed: 
+309    return err; 
+310} 
+311/* This macro generates class_attr_unexport structure and unexport_store() */ 
+312static CLASS_ATTR_WO(unexport); 
+313 
+314static struct attribute *vinput_class_attrs[] = { 
+315    &class_attr_export.attr, 
+316    &class_attr_unexport.attr, 
+317    NULL, 
+318}; 
+319 
+320/* This macro generates vinput_class_groups structure */ 
+321ATTRIBUTE_GROUPS(vinput_class); 
+322 
+323static struct class vinput_class = { 
+324    .name = "vinput", 
+325    .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
+326    .class_groups = vinput_class_groups, 
+327}; 
+328 
+329int vinput_register(struct vinput_device *dev) 
+330{ 
+331    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+332    list_add(&dev->list, &vinput_devices); 
+333    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+334 
+335    pr_info("vinput: registered new virtual input device '%s'\n", dev->name); 
+336 
+337    return 0; 
+338} 
+339EXPORT_SYMBOL(vinput_register); 
+340 
+341void vinput_unregister(struct vinput_device *dev) 
+342{ 
+343    struct list_head *curr, *next; 
+344 
+345    /* Remove from the list first */ 
+346    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+347    list_del(&dev->list); 
+348    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+349 
+350    /* unregister all devices of this type */ 
+351    list_for_each_safe (curr, next, &vinput_vdevices) { 
+352        struct vinput *vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput, list); 
+353        if (vinput && vinput->type == dev) { 
+354            vinput_unregister_vdevice(vinput); 
+355            device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
+356        } 
+357    } 
+358 
+359    pr_info("vinput: unregistered virtual input device '%s'\n", dev->name); 
+360} 
+361EXPORT_SYMBOL(vinput_unregister); 
+362 
+363static int __init vinput_init(void) 
+364{ 
+365    int err = 0; 
+366 
+367    pr_info("vinput: Loading virtual input driver\n"); 
+368 
+369    vinput_dev = register_chrdev(0, DRIVER_NAME, &vinput_fops); 
+370    if (vinput_dev < 0) { 
+371        pr_err("vinput: Unable to allocate char dev region\n"); 
+372        goto failed_alloc; 
+373    } 
+374 
+375    spin_lock_init(&vinput_lock); 
+376 
+377    err = class_register(&vinput_class); 
+378    if (err < 0) { 
+379        pr_err("vinput: Unable to register vinput class\n"); 
+380        goto failed_class; 
+381    } 
+382 
+383    return 0; 
+384failed_class: 
+385    class_unregister(&vinput_class); 
+386failed_alloc: 
+387    return err; 
+388} 
+389 
+390static void __exit vinput_end(void) 
+391{ 
+392    pr_info("vinput: Unloading virtual input driver\n"); 
+393 
+394    unregister_chrdev(vinput_dev, DRIVER_NAME); 
+395    class_unregister(&vinput_class); 
+396} 
+397 
+398module_init(vinput_init); 
+399module_exit(vinput_end); 
+400 
+401MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+402MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Emulate input events");
    
+
       Here the virtual keyboard is one of example to use vinput. It supports all
  KEY_MAX
  keycodes. The injection format is the   KEY_CODE
  such as defined in include/linux/input.h. A positive value means
@@ -6066,129 +6145,136 @@ node.
  while a negative value is a   KEY_RELEASE
 . The keyboard supports repetition when the key stays pressed for too long. The
 following demonstrates how simulation work.
-
       Simulate a key press on "g" (  KEY_G
+
       Simulate a key press on "g" (  KEY_G
  = 34):
 
    
 
    
-   
    1echo "+34" | sudo tee /dev/vinput0
    
-
       Simulate a key release on "g" (  KEY_G
+   
    1echo "+34" | sudo tee /dev/vinput0
    
+
       Simulate a key release on "g" (  KEY_G
  = 34):
 
    
 
    
-   
    1echo "-34" | sudo tee /dev/vinput0
    
+   
    1echo "-34" | sudo tee /dev/vinput0
    
 
 
    
 
    
-   
    1#include <linux/init.h> 
-2#include <linux/input.h> 
-3#include <linux/module.h> 
-4#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
-5 
-6#include "vinput.h" 
-7 
-8#define VINPUT_KBD "vkbd" 
-9#define VINPUT_RELEASE 0 
-10#define VINPUT_PRESS 1 
-11 
-12static unsigned short vkeymap[KEY_MAX]; 
-13 
-14static int vinput_vkbd_init(struct vinput *vinput) 
-15{ 
-16    int i; 
-17 
-18    /* Set up the input bitfield */ 
-19    vinput->input->evbit[0] = BIT_MASK(EV_KEY) | BIT_MASK(EV_REP); 
-20    vinput->input->keycodesize = sizeof(unsigned short); 
-21    vinput->input->keycodemax = KEY_MAX; 
-22    vinput->input->keycode = vkeymap; 
-23 
-24    for (i = 0; i < KEY_MAX; i++) 
-25        set_bit(vkeymap[i], vinput->input->keybit); 
-26 
-27    /* vinput will help us allocate new input device structure via 
-28     * input_allocate_device(). So, we can register it straightforwardly. 
-29     */ 
-30    return input_register_device(vinput->input); 
-31} 
-32 
-33static int vinput_vkbd_read(struct vinput *vinput, char *buff, int len) 
-34{ 
-35    spin_lock(&vinput->lock); 
-36    len = snprintf(buff, len, "%+ld\n", vinput->last_entry); 
-37    spin_unlock(&vinput->lock); 
-38 
-39    return len; 
-40} 
-41 
-42static int vinput_vkbd_send(struct vinput *vinput, char *buff, int len) 
-43{ 
-44    int ret; 
-45    long key = 0; 
-46    short type = VINPUT_PRESS; 
-47 
-48    /* Determine which event was received (press or release) 
-49     * and store the state. 
-50     */ 
-51    if (buff[0] == '+') 
-52        ret = kstrtol(buff + 1, 10, &key); 
-53    else 
-54        ret = kstrtol(buff, 10, &key); 
-55    if (ret) 
-56        dev_err(&vinput->dev, "error during kstrtol: -%d\n", ret); 
-57    spin_lock(&vinput->lock); 
-58    vinput->last_entry = key; 
-59    spin_unlock(&vinput->lock); 
-60 
-61    if (key < 0) { 
-62        type = VINPUT_RELEASE; 
-63        key = -key; 
-64    } 
-65 
-66    dev_info(&vinput->dev, "Event %s code %ld\n", 
-67             (type == VINPUT_RELEASE) ? "VINPUT_RELEASE" : "VINPUT_PRESS", key); 
-68 
-69    /* Report the state received to input subsystem. */ 
-70    input_report_key(vinput->input, key, type); 
-71    /* Tell input subsystem that it finished the report. */ 
-72    input_sync(vinput->input); 
-73 
-74    return len; 
-75} 
-76 
-77static struct vinput_ops vkbd_ops = { 
-78    .init = vinput_vkbd_init, 
-79    .send = vinput_vkbd_send, 
-80    .read = vinput_vkbd_read, 
-81}; 
-82 
-83static struct vinput_device vkbd_dev = { 
-84    .name = VINPUT_KBD, 
-85    .ops = &vkbd_ops, 
-86}; 
-87 
-88static int __init vkbd_init(void) 
-89{ 
-90    int i; 
-91 
-92    for (i = 0; i < KEY_MAX; i++) 
-93        vkeymap[i] = i; 
-94    return vinput_register(&vkbd_dev); 
-95} 
-96 
-97static void __exit vkbd_end(void) 
-98{ 
-99    vinput_unregister(&vkbd_dev); 
-100} 
-101 
-102module_init(vkbd_init); 
-103module_exit(vkbd_end); 
-104 
-105MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-106MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Emulate keyboard input events through /dev/vinput");
    
-
    
+   
    1/* 
+2 * vkbd.c 
+3 */ 
+4 
+5#include <linux/init.h> 
+6#include <linux/input.h> 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
+8#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
+9 
+10#include "vinput.h" 
+11 
+12#define VINPUT_KBD "vkbd" 
+13#define VINPUT_RELEASE 0 
+14#define VINPUT_PRESS 1 
+15 
+16static unsigned short vkeymap[KEY_MAX]; 
+17 
+18static int vinput_vkbd_init(struct vinput *vinput) 
+19{ 
+20    int i; 
+21 
+22    /* Set up the input bitfield */ 
+23    vinput->input->evbit[0] = BIT_MASK(EV_KEY) | BIT_MASK(EV_REP); 
+24    vinput->input->keycodesize = sizeof(unsigned short); 
+25    vinput->input->keycodemax = KEY_MAX; 
+26    vinput->input->keycode = vkeymap; 
+27 
+28    for (i = 0; i < KEY_MAX; i++) 
+29        set_bit(vkeymap[i], vinput->input->keybit); 
+30 
+31    /* vinput will help us allocate new input device structure via 
+32     * input_allocate_device(). So, we can register it straightforwardly. 
+33     */ 
+34    return input_register_device(vinput->input); 
+35} 
+36 
+37static int vinput_vkbd_read(struct vinput *vinput, char *buff, int len) 
+38{ 
+39    spin_lock(&vinput->lock); 
+40    len = snprintf(buff, len, "%+ld\n", vinput->last_entry); 
+41    spin_unlock(&vinput->lock); 
+42 
+43    return len; 
+44} 
+45 
+46static int vinput_vkbd_send(struct vinput *vinput, char *buff, int len) 
+47{ 
+48    int ret; 
+49    long key = 0; 
+50    short type = VINPUT_PRESS; 
+51 
+52    /* Determine which event was received (press or release) 
+53     * and store the state. 
+54     */ 
+55    if (buff[0] == '+') 
+56        ret = kstrtol(buff + 1, 10, &key); 
+57    else 
+58        ret = kstrtol(buff, 10, &key); 
+59    if (ret) 
+60        dev_err(&vinput->dev, "error during kstrtol: -%d\n", ret); 
+61    spin_lock(&vinput->lock); 
+62    vinput->last_entry = key; 
+63    spin_unlock(&vinput->lock); 
+64 
+65    if (key < 0) { 
+66        type = VINPUT_RELEASE; 
+67        key = -key; 
+68    } 
+69 
+70    dev_info(&vinput->dev, "Event %s code %ld\n", 
+71             (type == VINPUT_RELEASE) ? "VINPUT_RELEASE" : "VINPUT_PRESS", key); 
+72 
+73    /* Report the state received to input subsystem. */ 
+74    input_report_key(vinput->input, key, type); 
+75    /* Tell input subsystem that it finished the report. */ 
+76    input_sync(vinput->input); 
+77 
+78    return len; 
+79} 
+80 
+81static struct vinput_ops vkbd_ops = { 
+82    .init = vinput_vkbd_init, 
+83    .send = vinput_vkbd_send, 
+84    .read = vinput_vkbd_read, 
+85}; 
+86 
+87static struct vinput_device vkbd_dev = { 
+88    .name = VINPUT_KBD, 
+89    .ops = &vkbd_ops, 
+90}; 
+91 
+92static int __init vkbd_init(void) 
+93{ 
+94    int i; 
+95 
+96    for (i = 0; i < KEY_MAX; i++) 
+97        vkeymap[i] = i; 
+98    return vinput_register(&vkbd_dev); 
+99} 
+100 
+101static void __exit vkbd_end(void) 
+102{ 
+103    vinput_unregister(&vkbd_dev); 
+104} 
+105 
+106module_init(vkbd_init); 
+107module_exit(vkbd_end); 
+108 
+109MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+110MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Emulate keyboard input events through /dev/vinput");
    
+
    
 
    
+                                                                  
+
+                                                                  
    
    18    Standardizing the interfaces: The Device Model
    
-
    Up to this point we have seen all kinds of modules doing all kinds of things, but there
+
    Up to this point we have seen all kinds of modules doing all kinds of things, but there
 was no consistency in their interfaces with the rest of the kernel. To impose some
 consistency such that there is at minimum a standardized way to start, suspend and
 resume a device a device model was added. An example is shown below, and you can
@@ -6196,59 +6282,59 @@ use this as a template to add your own suspend, resume or other interface
 functions.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * devicemodel.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-5#include <linux/module.h> 
-6#include <linux/platform_device.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * devicemodel.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+5#include <linux/module.h> 
+6#include <linux/platform_device.h> 
 7 
-8struct devicemodel_data { 
-9    char *greeting; 
-10    int number; 
+8struct devicemodel_data { 
+9    char *greeting; 
+10    int number; 
 11}; 
 12 
-13static int devicemodel_probe(struct platform_device *dev) 
+13static int devicemodel_probe(struct platform_device *dev) 
 14{ 
-15    struct devicemodel_data *pd = 
-16        (struct devicemodel_data *)(dev->dev.platform_data); 
+15    struct devicemodel_data *pd = 
+16        (struct devicemodel_data *)(dev->dev.platform_data); 
 17 
-18    pr_info("devicemodel probe\n"); 
-19    pr_info("devicemodel greeting: %s; %d\n", pd->greeting, pd->number); 
+18    pr_info("devicemodel probe\n"); 
+19    pr_info("devicemodel greeting: %s; %d\n", pd->greeting, pd->number); 
 20 
-21    /* Your device initialization code */ 
+21    /* Your device initialization code */ 
 22 
-23    return 0; 
+23    return 0; 
 24} 
 25 
-26static int devicemodel_remove(struct platform_device *dev) 
+26static int devicemodel_remove(struct platform_device *dev) 
 27{ 
-28    pr_info("devicemodel example removed\n"); 
+28    pr_info("devicemodel example removed\n"); 
 29 
-30    /* Your device removal code */ 
+30    /* Your device removal code */ 
 31 
-32    return 0; 
+32    return 0; 
 33} 
 34 
-35static int devicemodel_suspend(struct device *dev) 
+35static int devicemodel_suspend(struct device *dev) 
 36{ 
-37    pr_info("devicemodel example suspend\n"); 
+37    pr_info("devicemodel example suspend\n"); 
 38 
-39    /* Your device suspend code */ 
+39    /* Your device suspend code */ 
 40 
-41    return 0; 
+41    return 0; 
 42} 
 43 
-44static int devicemodel_resume(struct device *dev) 
+44static int devicemodel_resume(struct device *dev) 
 45{ 
-46    pr_info("devicemodel example resume\n"); 
+46    pr_info("devicemodel example resume\n"); 
 47 
-48    /* Your device resume code */ 
+48    /* Your device resume code */ 
 49 
-50    return 0; 
+50    return 0; 
 51} 
 52 
-53static const struct dev_pm_ops devicemodel_pm_ops = { 
+53static const struct dev_pm_ops devicemodel_pm_ops = { 
 54    .suspend = devicemodel_suspend, 
 55    .resume = devicemodel_resume, 
 56    .poweroff = devicemodel_suspend, 
@@ -6257,10 +6343,10 @@ functions.
 59    .restore = devicemodel_resume, 
 60}; 
 61 
-62static struct platform_driver devicemodel_driver = { 
+62static struct platform_driver devicemodel_driver = { 
 63    .driver = 
 64        { 
-65            .name = "devicemodel_example", 
+65            .name = "devicemodel_example", 
 66            .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
 67            .pm = &devicemodel_pm_ops, 
 68        }, 
@@ -6268,43 +6354,40 @@ functions.
 70    .remove = devicemodel_remove, 
 71}; 
 72 
-73static int devicemodel_init(void) 
+73static int devicemodel_init(void) 
 74{ 
-75    int ret; 
+75    int ret; 
 76 
-77    pr_info("devicemodel init\n"); 
+77    pr_info("devicemodel init\n"); 
 78 
 79    ret = platform_driver_register(&devicemodel_driver); 
 80 
-81    if (ret) { 
-82        pr_err("Unable to register driver\n"); 
-83        return ret; 
+81    if (ret) { 
+82        pr_err("Unable to register driver\n"); 
+83        return ret; 
 84    } 
 85 
-86    return 0; 
+86    return 0; 
 87} 
 88 
-89static void devicemodel_exit(void) 
+89static void devicemodel_exit(void) 
 90{ 
-91    pr_info("devicemodel exit\n"); 
+91    pr_info("devicemodel exit\n"); 
 92    platform_driver_unregister(&devicemodel_driver); 
 93} 
 94 
 95module_init(devicemodel_init); 
 96module_exit(devicemodel_exit); 
 97 
-98MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-99MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Linux Device Model example");
    
-
    
+98MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+99MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Linux Device Model example");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    19    Optimizations
    
-                                                                  
-
-                                                                  
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    19.1    Likely and Unlikely conditions
    
-
    Sometimes you might want your code to run as quickly as possible,
+
    Sometimes you might want your code to run as quickly as possible,
 especially if it is handling an interrupt or doing something which might
 cause noticeable latency. If your code contains boolean conditions and if
 you know that the conditions are almost always likely to evaluate as either
@@ -6317,49 +6400,49 @@ you know that the conditions are almost always likely to evaluate as either
 to succeed.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1bvl = bvec_alloc(gfp_mask, nr_iovecs, &idx); 
-2if (unlikely(!bvl)) { 
+   
    1bvl = bvec_alloc(gfp_mask, nr_iovecs, &idx); 
+2if (unlikely(!bvl)) { 
 3    mempool_free(bio, bio_pool); 
 4    bio = NULL; 
-5    goto out; 
+5    goto out; 
 6}
    
-
       When the   unlikely
+
       When the   unlikely
  macro is used, the compiler alters its machine instruction output, so that it
 continues along the false branch and only jumps if the condition is true. That
 avoids flushing the processor pipeline. The opposite happens if you use the
  likely
  macro.
-
    
-
    
-   
    20    Common Pitfalls
    
-
    
-
    
-   
    20.1    Using standard libraries
    
-
    You can not do that. In a kernel module, you can only use kernel functions which are
-the functions you can see in /proc/kallsyms.
-
    
-
    
-   
    20.2    Disabling interrupts
    
-
    You might need to do this for a short time and that is OK, but if you do not enable
-them afterwards, your system will be stuck and you will have to power it
-off.
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
    
+
    
+
    
+   
    20    Common Pitfalls
    
+
    
+
    
+   
    20.1    Using standard libraries
    
+
    You can not do that. In a kernel module, you can only use kernel functions which are
+the functions you can see in /proc/kallsyms.
+
    
+
    
+   
    20.2    Disabling interrupts
    
+
    You might need to do this for a short time and that is OK, but if you do not enable
+them afterwards, your system will be stuck and you will have to power it
+off.
+
    
 
    
    
    21    Where To Go From Here?
    
-
    For people seriously interested in kernel programming, I recommend kernelnewbies.org
+
    For people seriously interested in kernel programming, I recommend kernelnewbies.org
 and the Documentation subdirectory within the kernel source code which is not
 always easy to understand but can be a starting point for further investigation. Also,
 as Linus Torvalds said, the best way to learn the kernel is to read the source code
 yourself.
-
       If you would like to contribute to this guide or notice anything glaringly wrong,
+
       If you would like to contribute to this guide or notice anything glaringly wrong,
 please create an issue at https://github.com/sysprog21/lkmpg. Your pull requests
 will be appreciated.
-
       Happy hacking!
+
       Happy hacking!
 
    
-   
         1The goal of threaded interrupts is to push more of the work to separate threads, so that the
+   
         1The goal of threaded interrupts is to push more of the work to separate threads, so that the
 minimum needed for acknowledging an interrupt is reduced, and therefore the time spent handling
 the interrupt (where it can’t handle any other interrupts at the same time) is reduced. See
 https://lwn.net/Articles/302043/.
                                                                             
    
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+pre#fancyvrb97{ border-right: solid 0.4pt; }
+span#textcolor3405{color:rgb(0,0,255)}
+span#textcolor3406{color:rgb(0,0,255)}
 /* end css.sty */
 
diff --git a/lkmpg-for-ht.html b/lkmpg-for-ht.html
index 97f6133..542b0e7 100644
--- a/lkmpg-for-ht.html
+++ b/lkmpg-for-ht.html
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
 
 
    The Linux Kernel Module Programming Guide
    
 
    Peter Jay Salzman, Michael Burian, Ori Pomerantz, Bob Mottram, Jim Huang

    
-
    April 16, 2022
    
+
    April 18, 2022
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
@@ -2417,109 +2417,159 @@ under the /
 
    
 
    
    
    1ls -l /sys
    
-
       An example of a hello world module which includes the creation of a variable
-accessible via sysfs is given below.
+
       Attributes can be exported for kobjects in the form of regular files in the
+filesystem. Sysfs forwards file I/O operations to methods defined for the attributes,
+providing a means to read and write kernel attributes.
+
       An attribute definition in simply:
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * hello-sysfs.c sysfs example 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/fs.h> 
-5#include <linux/init.h> 
-6#include <linux/kobject.h> 
-7#include <linux/module.h> 
-8#include <linux/string.h> 
-9#include <linux/sysfs.h> 
-10 
-11static struct kobject *mymodule; 
-12 
-13/* the variable you want to be able to change */ 
-14static int myvariable = 0; 
-15 
-16static ssize_t myvariable_show(struct kobject *kobj, 
-17                               struct kobj_attribute *attr, char *buf) 
-18{ 
-19    return sprintf(buf, "%d\n", myvariable); 
-20} 
-21 
-22static ssize_t myvariable_store(struct kobject *kobj, 
-23                                struct kobj_attribute *attr, char *buf, 
-24                                size_t count) 
-25{ 
-26    sscanf(buf, "%du", &myvariable); 
-27    return count; 
-28} 
-29 
-30static struct kobj_attribute myvariable_attribute = 
-31    __ATTR(myvariable, 0660, myvariable_show, (void *)myvariable_store); 
-32 
-33static int __init mymodule_init(void) 
-34{ 
-35    int error = 0; 
-36 
-37    pr_info("mymodule: initialised\n"); 
-38 
-39    mymodule = kobject_create_and_add("mymodule", kernel_kobj); 
-40    if (!mymodule) 
-41        return -ENOMEM; 
-42 
-43    error = sysfs_create_file(mymodule, &myvariable_attribute.attr); 
-44    if (error) { 
-45        pr_info("failed to create the myvariable file " 
-46                "in /sys/kernel/mymodule\n"); 
-47    } 
-48 
-49    return error; 
-50} 
-51 
-52static void __exit mymodule_exit(void) 
-53{ 
-54    pr_info("mymodule: Exit success\n"); 
-55    kobject_put(mymodule); 
-56} 
-57 
-58module_init(mymodule_init); 
-59module_exit(mymodule_exit); 
-60 
-61MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
       Make and install the module:
+   
    1struct attribute { 
+2    char *name; 
+3    struct module *owner; 
+4    umode_t mode; 
+5}; 
+6 
+7int sysfs_create_file(struct kobject * kobj, const struct attribute * attr); 
+8void sysfs_remove_file(struct kobject * kobj, const struct attribute * attr);
    
+
       For example, the driver model defines
+ struct device_attribute
+ like:
 
    
-
    
-   
    1make 
-2sudo insmod hello-sysfs.ko
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
       Check that it exists:
+
    
+   
    1struct device_attribute { 
+2    struct attribute attr; 
+3    ssize_t (*show)(struct device *dev, struct device_attribute *attr, 
+4                    char *buf); 
+5    ssize_t (*store)(struct device *dev, struct device_attribute *attr, 
+6                    const char *buf, size_t count); 
+7}; 
+8 
+9int device_create_file(struct device *, const struct device_attribute *); 
+10void device_remove_file(struct device *, const struct device_attribute *);
    
+
       To read or write attributes,   show()
+ or   store()
+ method must be specified when declaring the attribute. For the
+common cases include/linux/sysfs.h provides convenience macros
+(  __ATTR
+,   __ATTR_RO
+,   __ATTR_WO
+, etc.) to make defining attributes easier as well as making code more concise and
+readable.
+
       An example of a hello world module which includes the creation of a variable
+accessible via sysfs is given below.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1sudo lsmod | grep hello_sysfs
    
-
       What is the current value of   myvariable
+   
    1/* 
+2 * hello-sysfs.c sysfs example 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/fs.h> 
+5#include <linux/init.h> 
+6#include <linux/kobject.h> 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
+8#include <linux/string.h> 
+9#include <linux/sysfs.h> 
+10 
+11static struct kobject *mymodule; 
+12 
+13/* the variable you want to be able to change */ 
+14static int myvariable = 0; 
+15 
+16static ssize_t myvariable_show(struct kobject *kobj, 
+17                               struct kobj_attribute *attr, char *buf) 
+18{ 
+19    return sprintf(buf, "%d\n", myvariable); 
+20} 
+21 
+22static ssize_t myvariable_store(struct kobject *kobj, 
+23                                struct kobj_attribute *attr, char *buf, 
+24                                size_t count) 
+25{ 
+26    sscanf(buf, "%du", &myvariable); 
+27    return count; 
+28} 
+29 
+30static struct kobj_attribute myvariable_attribute = 
+31    __ATTR(myvariable, 0660, myvariable_show, (void *)myvariable_store); 
+32 
+33static int __init mymodule_init(void) 
+34{ 
+35    int error = 0; 
+36 
+37    pr_info("mymodule: initialised\n"); 
+38 
+39    mymodule = kobject_create_and_add("mymodule", kernel_kobj); 
+40    if (!mymodule) 
+41        return -ENOMEM; 
+42 
+43    error = sysfs_create_file(mymodule, &myvariable_attribute.attr); 
+44    if (error) { 
+45        pr_info("failed to create the myvariable file " 
+46                "in /sys/kernel/mymodule\n"); 
+47    } 
+48 
+49    return error; 
+50} 
+51 
+52static void __exit mymodule_exit(void) 
+53{ 
+54    pr_info("mymodule: Exit success\n"); 
+55    kobject_put(mymodule); 
+56} 
+57 
+58module_init(mymodule_init); 
+59module_exit(mymodule_exit); 
+60 
+61MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
       Make and install the module:
+
    
+
    
+   
    1make 
+2sudo insmod hello-sysfs.ko
    
+
       Check that it exists:
+
    
+
    
+   
    1sudo lsmod | grep hello_sysfs
    
+
       What is the current value of   myvariable
  ?
 
    
 
    
-   
    1cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable
    
-
       Set the value of   myvariable
+   
    1cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable
    
+
       Set the value of   myvariable
  and check that it changed.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1echo "32" > /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable 
-2cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable
    
-
       Finally, remove the test module:
+   
    1echo "32" > /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable 
+2cat /sys/kernel/mymodule/myvariable
    
+
       Finally, remove the test module:
 
    
 
    
-   
    1sudo rmmod hello_sysfs
    
-
    
+   
    1sudo rmmod hello_sysfs
    
+                                                                  
+
+                                                                  
+
       In the above case, we use a simple kobject to create a directory under
+sysfs, and communicate with its attributes. Since Linux v2.6.0, the
+ kobject
+ structure made its appearance. It was initially meant as a simple way of
+unifying kernel code which manages reference counted objects. After a
+bit of mission creep, it is now the glue that holds much of the device
+model and its sysfs interface together. For more information about kobject
+and sysfs, see Documentation/driver-api/driver-model/driver.rst and
+https://lwn.net/Articles/51437/.
+
    
 
    
    
    9    Talking To Device Files
    
-
    Device files are supposed to represent physical devices. Most physical devices are
+
    Device files are supposed to represent physical devices. Most physical devices are
 used for output as well as input, so there has to be some mechanism for
 device drivers in the kernel to get the output to send to the device from
 processes. This is done by opening the device file for output and writing to it,
 just like writing to a file. In the following example, this is implemented by
  device_write
 .
-
       This is not always enough. Imagine you had a serial port connected to a modem
+
       This is not always enough. Imagine you had a serial port connected to a modem
 (even if you have an internal modem, it is still implemented from the CPU’s
 perspective as a serial port connected to a modem, so you don’t have to tax
 your imagination too hard). The natural thing to do would be to use the
@@ -2529,10 +2579,7 @@ responses for commands or the data received through the phone line). However,
 this leaves open the question of what to do when you need to talk to the
 serial port itself, for example to configure the rate at which data is sent and
 received.
-                                                                  
-
-                                                                  
-
       The answer in Unix is to use a special function called
+
       The answer in Unix is to use a special function called
  ioctl
  (short for Input Output ConTroL). Every device can have its own
  ioctl
@@ -2541,154 +2588,157 @@ kernel), write ioctl’s (to return information to a process), both or neither.
 here the roles of read and write are reversed again, so in ioctl’s read is to
 send information to the kernel and write is to receive information from the
 kernel.
-
       The ioctl function is called with three parameters: the file descriptor of the
+
       The ioctl function is called with three parameters: the file descriptor of the
 appropriate device file, the ioctl number, and a parameter, which is of type long so
 you can use a cast to use it to pass anything. You will not be able to pass a structure
 this way, but you will be able to pass a pointer to the structure. Here is an
 example:
+                                                                  
+
+                                                                  
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * ioctl.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/cdev.h> 
-5#include <linux/fs.h> 
-6#include <linux/init.h> 
-7#include <linux/ioctl.h> 
-8#include <linux/module.h> 
-9#include <linux/slab.h> 
-10#include <linux/uaccess.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * ioctl.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/cdev.h> 
+5#include <linux/fs.h> 
+6#include <linux/init.h> 
+7#include <linux/ioctl.h> 
+8#include <linux/module.h> 
+9#include <linux/slab.h> 
+10#include <linux/uaccess.h> 
 11 
-12struct ioctl_arg { 
-13    unsigned int val; 
+12struct ioctl_arg { 
+13    unsigned int val; 
 14}; 
 15 
-16/* Documentation/ioctl/ioctl-number.txt */ 
-17#define IOC_MAGIC '\x66' 
+16/* Documentation/ioctl/ioctl-number.txt */ 
+17#define IOC_MAGIC '\x66' 
 18 
-19#define IOCTL_VALSET _IOW(IOC_MAGIC, 0, struct ioctl_arg) 
-20#define IOCTL_VALGET _IOR(IOC_MAGIC, 1, struct ioctl_arg) 
-21#define IOCTL_VALGET_NUM _IOR(IOC_MAGIC, 2, int) 
-22#define IOCTL_VALSET_NUM _IOW(IOC_MAGIC, 3, int) 
+19#define IOCTL_VALSET _IOW(IOC_MAGIC, 0, struct ioctl_arg) 
+20#define IOCTL_VALGET _IOR(IOC_MAGIC, 1, struct ioctl_arg) 
+21#define IOCTL_VALGET_NUM _IOR(IOC_MAGIC, 2, int) 
+22#define IOCTL_VALSET_NUM _IOW(IOC_MAGIC, 3, int) 
 23 
-24#define IOCTL_VAL_MAXNR 3 
-25#define DRIVER_NAME "ioctltest" 
+24#define IOCTL_VAL_MAXNR 3 
+25#define DRIVER_NAME "ioctltest" 
 26 
-27static unsigned int test_ioctl_major = 0; 
-28static unsigned int num_of_dev = 1; 
-29static struct cdev test_ioctl_cdev; 
-30static int ioctl_num = 0; 
+27static unsigned int test_ioctl_major = 0; 
+28static unsigned int num_of_dev = 1; 
+29static struct cdev test_ioctl_cdev; 
+30static int ioctl_num = 0; 
 31 
-32struct test_ioctl_data { 
-33    unsigned char val; 
+32struct test_ioctl_data { 
+33    unsigned char val; 
 34    rwlock_t lock; 
 35}; 
 36 
-37static long test_ioctl_ioctl(struct file *filp, unsigned int cmd, 
-38                             unsigned long arg) 
+37static long test_ioctl_ioctl(struct file *filp, unsigned int cmd, 
+38                             unsigned long arg) 
 39{ 
-40    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data = filp->private_data; 
-41    int retval = 0; 
-42    unsigned char val; 
-43    struct ioctl_arg data; 
-44    memset(&data, 0, sizeof(data)); 
+40    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data = filp->private_data; 
+41    int retval = 0; 
+42    unsigned char val; 
+43    struct ioctl_arg data; 
+44    memset(&data, 0, sizeof(data)); 
 45 
-46    switch (cmd) { 
-47    case IOCTL_VALSET: 
-48        if (copy_from_user(&data, (int __user *)arg, sizeof(data))) { 
+46    switch (cmd) { 
+47    case IOCTL_VALSET: 
+48        if (copy_from_user(&data, (int __user *)arg, sizeof(data))) { 
 49            retval = -EFAULT; 
-50            goto done; 
+50            goto done; 
 51        } 
 52 
-53        pr_alert("IOCTL set val:%x .\n", data.val); 
+53        pr_alert("IOCTL set val:%x .\n", data.val); 
 54        write_lock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 55        ioctl_data->val = data.val; 
 56        write_unlock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
-57        break; 
+57        break; 
 58 
-59    case IOCTL_VALGET: 
+59    case IOCTL_VALGET: 
 60        read_lock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 61        val = ioctl_data->val; 
 62        read_unlock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 63        data.val = val; 
 64 
-65        if (copy_to_user((int __user *)arg, &data, sizeof(data))) { 
+65        if (copy_to_user((int __user *)arg, &data, sizeof(data))) { 
 66            retval = -EFAULT; 
-67            goto done; 
+67            goto done; 
 68        } 
 69 
-70        break; 
+70        break; 
 71 
-72    case IOCTL_VALGET_NUM: 
-73        retval = __put_user(ioctl_num, (int __user *)arg); 
-74        break; 
+72    case IOCTL_VALGET_NUM: 
+73        retval = __put_user(ioctl_num, (int __user *)arg); 
+74        break; 
 75 
-76    case IOCTL_VALSET_NUM: 
+76    case IOCTL_VALSET_NUM: 
 77        ioctl_num = arg; 
-78        break; 
+78        break; 
 79 
-80    default: 
+80    default: 
 81        retval = -ENOTTY; 
 82    } 
 83 
 84done: 
-85    return retval; 
+85    return retval; 
 86} 
 87 
-88static ssize_t test_ioctl_read(struct file *filp, char __user *buf, 
-89                               size_t count, loff_t *f_pos) 
+88static ssize_t test_ioctl_read(struct file *filp, char __user *buf, 
+89                               size_t count, loff_t *f_pos) 
 90{ 
-91    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data = filp->private_data; 
-92    unsigned char val; 
-93    int retval; 
-94    int i = 0; 
+91    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data = filp->private_data; 
+92    unsigned char val; 
+93    int retval; 
+94    int i = 0; 
 95 
 96    read_lock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 97    val = ioctl_data->val; 
 98    read_unlock(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 99 
-100    for (; i < count; i++) { 
-101        if (copy_to_user(&buf[i], &val, 1)) { 
+100    for (; i < count; i++) { 
+101        if (copy_to_user(&buf[i], &val, 1)) { 
 102            retval = -EFAULT; 
-103            goto out; 
+103            goto out; 
 104        } 
 105    } 
 106 
 107    retval = count; 
 108out: 
-109    return retval; 
+109    return retval; 
 110} 
 111 
-112static int test_ioctl_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *filp) 
+112static int test_ioctl_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *filp) 
 113{ 
-114    pr_alert("%s call.\n", __func__); 
+114    pr_alert("%s call.\n", __func__); 
 115 
-116    if (filp->private_data) { 
+116    if (filp->private_data) { 
 117        kfree(filp->private_data); 
 118        filp->private_data = NULL; 
 119    } 
 120 
-121    return 0; 
+121    return 0; 
 122} 
 123 
-124static int test_ioctl_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *filp) 
+124static int test_ioctl_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *filp) 
 125{ 
-126    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data; 
+126    struct test_ioctl_data *ioctl_data; 
 127 
-128    pr_alert("%s call.\n", __func__); 
-129    ioctl_data = kmalloc(sizeof(struct test_ioctl_data), GFP_KERNEL); 
+128    pr_alert("%s call.\n", __func__); 
+129    ioctl_data = kmalloc(sizeof(struct test_ioctl_data), GFP_KERNEL); 
 130 
-131    if (ioctl_data == NULL) 
-132        return -ENOMEM; 
+131    if (ioctl_data == NULL) 
+132        return -ENOMEM; 
 133 
 134    rwlock_init(&ioctl_data->lock); 
 135    ioctl_data->val = 0xFF; 
 136    filp->private_data = ioctl_data; 
 137 
-138    return 0; 
+138    return 0; 
 139} 
 140 
-141static struct file_operations fops = { 
+141static struct file_operations fops = { 
 142    .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
 143    .open = test_ioctl_open, 
 144    .release = test_ioctl_close, 
@@ -2696,49 +2746,49 @@ example:
 146    .unlocked_ioctl = test_ioctl_ioctl, 
 147}; 
 148 
-149static int ioctl_init(void) 
+149static int ioctl_init(void) 
 150{ 
-151    dev_t dev; 
-152    int alloc_ret = -1; 
-153    int cdev_ret = -1; 
+151    dev_t dev; 
+152    int alloc_ret = -1; 
+153    int cdev_ret = -1; 
 154    alloc_ret = alloc_chrdev_region(&dev, 0, num_of_dev, DRIVER_NAME); 
 155 
-156    if (alloc_ret) 
-157        goto error; 
+156    if (alloc_ret) 
+157        goto error; 
 158 
 159    test_ioctl_major = MAJOR(dev); 
 160    cdev_init(&test_ioctl_cdev, &fops); 
 161    cdev_ret = cdev_add(&test_ioctl_cdev, dev, num_of_dev); 
 162 
-163    if (cdev_ret) 
-164        goto error; 
+163    if (cdev_ret) 
+164        goto error; 
 165 
-166    pr_alert("%s driver(major: %d) installed.\n", DRIVER_NAME, 
+166    pr_alert("%s driver(major: %d) installed.\n", DRIVER_NAME, 
 167             test_ioctl_major); 
-168    return 0; 
+168    return 0; 
 169error: 
-170    if (cdev_ret == 0) 
+170    if (cdev_ret == 0) 
 171        cdev_del(&test_ioctl_cdev); 
-172    if (alloc_ret == 0) 
+172    if (alloc_ret == 0) 
 173        unregister_chrdev_region(dev, num_of_dev); 
-174    return -1; 
+174    return -1; 
 175} 
 176 
-177static void ioctl_exit(void) 
+177static void ioctl_exit(void) 
 178{ 
-179    dev_t dev = MKDEV(test_ioctl_major, 0); 
+179    dev_t dev = MKDEV(test_ioctl_major, 0); 
 180 
 181    cdev_del(&test_ioctl_cdev); 
 182    unregister_chrdev_region(dev, num_of_dev); 
-183    pr_alert("%s driver removed.\n", DRIVER_NAME); 
+183    pr_alert("%s driver removed.\n", DRIVER_NAME); 
 184} 
 185 
 186module_init(ioctl_init); 
 187module_exit(ioctl_exit); 
 188 
-189MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-190MODULE_DESCRIPTION("This is test_ioctl module");
    
-
       You can see there is an argument called
+189MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+190MODULE_DESCRIPTION("This is test_ioctl module");
    
+
       You can see there is an argument called
  cmd
  in   test_ioctl_ioctl()
  function. It is the ioctl number. The ioctl number encodes the major
@@ -2753,412 +2803,412 @@ included both by the programs which will use ioctl (so they can generate the
 appropriate ioctl’s) and by the kernel module (so it can understand it). In the
 example below, the header file is chardev.h and the program which uses it is
 userspace_ioctl.c.
-
       If you want to use ioctls in your own kernel modules, it is best to receive an
+
       If you want to use ioctls in your own kernel modules, it is best to receive an
 official ioctl assignment, so if you accidentally get somebody else’s ioctls, or if they
 get yours, you’ll know something is wrong. For more information, consult the kernel
 source tree at Documentation/userspace-api/ioctl/ioctl-number.rst.
-
       Also, we need to be careful that concurrent access to the shared resources will
+
       Also, we need to be careful that concurrent access to the shared resources will
 lead to the race condition. The solution is using atomic Compare-And-Swap (CAS),
 which we mentioned at 6.5 section, to enforce the exclusive access.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * chardev2.c - Create an input/output character device 
-3 */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * chardev2.c - Create an input/output character device 
+3 */ 
 4 
-5#include <linux/cdev.h> 
-6#include <linux/delay.h> 
-7#include <linux/device.h> 
-8#include <linux/fs.h> 
-9#include <linux/init.h> 
-10#include <linux/irq.h> 
-11#include <linux/kernel.h> /* We are doing kernel work */ 
-12#include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */ 
-13#include <linux/poll.h> 
+5#include <linux/cdev.h> 
+6#include <linux/delay.h> 
+7#include <linux/device.h> 
+8#include <linux/fs.h> 
+9#include <linux/init.h> 
+10#include <linux/irq.h> 
+11#include <linux/kernel.h> /* We are doing kernel work */ 
+12#include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */ 
+13#include <linux/poll.h> 
 14 
-15#include "chardev.h" 
-16#define SUCCESS 0 
-17#define DEVICE_NAME "char_dev" 
-18#define BUF_LEN 80 
+15#include "chardev.h" 
+16#define SUCCESS 0 
+17#define DEVICE_NAME "char_dev" 
+18#define BUF_LEN 80 
 19 
-20enum { 
+20enum { 
 21    CDEV_NOT_USED = 0, 
 22    CDEV_EXCLUSIVE_OPEN = 1, 
 23}; 
 24 
-25/* Is the device open right now? Used to prevent concurrent access into 
-26 * the same device 
-27 */ 
-28static atomic_t already_open = ATOMIC_INIT(CDEV_NOT_USED); 
+25/* Is the device open right now? Used to prevent concurrent access into 
+26 * the same device 
+27 */ 
+28static atomic_t already_open = ATOMIC_INIT(CDEV_NOT_USED); 
 29 
-30/* The message the device will give when asked */ 
-31static char message[BUF_LEN]; 
+30/* The message the device will give when asked */ 
+31static char message[BUF_LEN]; 
 32 
-33static struct class *cls; 
+33static struct class *cls; 
 34 
-35/* This is called whenever a process attempts to open the device file */ 
-36static int device_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+35/* This is called whenever a process attempts to open the device file */ 
+36static int device_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
 37{ 
-38    pr_info("device_open(%p)\n", file); 
+38    pr_info("device_open(%p)\n", file); 
 39 
 40    try_module_get(THIS_MODULE); 
-41    return SUCCESS; 
+41    return SUCCESS; 
 42} 
 43 
-44static int device_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+44static int device_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
 45{ 
-46    pr_info("device_release(%p,%p)\n", inode, file); 
+46    pr_info("device_release(%p,%p)\n", inode, file); 
 47 
 48    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
-49    return SUCCESS; 
+49    return SUCCESS; 
 50} 
 51 
-52/* This function is called whenever a process which has already opened the 
-53 * device file attempts to read from it. 
-54 */ 
-55static ssize_t device_read(struct file *file, /* see include/linux/fs.h   */ 
-56                           char __user *buffer, /* buffer to be filled  */ 
-57                           size_t length, /* length of the buffer     */ 
+52/* This function is called whenever a process which has already opened the 
+53 * device file attempts to read from it. 
+54 */ 
+55static ssize_t device_read(struct file *file, /* see include/linux/fs.h   */ 
+56                           char __user *buffer, /* buffer to be filled  */ 
+57                           size_t length, /* length of the buffer     */ 
 58                           loff_t *offset) 
 59{ 
-60    /* Number of bytes actually written to the buffer */ 
-61    int bytes_read = 0; 
-62    /* How far did the process reading the message get? Useful if the message 
-63     * is larger than the size of the buffer we get to fill in device_read. 
-64     */ 
-65    const char *message_ptr = message; 
+60    /* Number of bytes actually written to the buffer */ 
+61    int bytes_read = 0; 
+62    /* How far did the process reading the message get? Useful if the message 
+63     * is larger than the size of the buffer we get to fill in device_read. 
+64     */ 
+65    const char *message_ptr = message; 
 66 
-67    if (!*(message_ptr + *offset)) { /* we are at the end of message */ 
-68        *offset = 0; /* reset the offset */ 
-69        return 0; /* signify end of file */ 
+67    if (!*(message_ptr + *offset)) { /* we are at the end of message */ 
+68        *offset = 0; /* reset the offset */ 
+69        return 0; /* signify end of file */ 
 70    } 
 71 
 72    message_ptr += *offset; 
 73 
-74    /* Actually put the data into the buffer */ 
-75    while (length && *message_ptr) { 
-76        /* Because the buffer is in the user data segment, not the kernel 
-77         * data segment, assignment would not work. Instead, we have to 
-78         * use put_user which copies data from the kernel data segment to 
-79         * the user data segment. 
-80         */ 
+74    /* Actually put the data into the buffer */ 
+75    while (length && *message_ptr) { 
+76        /* Because the buffer is in the user data segment, not the kernel 
+77         * data segment, assignment would not work. Instead, we have to 
+78         * use put_user which copies data from the kernel data segment to 
+79         * the user data segment. 
+80         */ 
 81        put_user(*(message_ptr++), buffer++); 
 82        length--; 
 83        bytes_read++; 
 84    } 
 85 
-86    pr_info("Read %d bytes, %ld left\n", bytes_read, length); 
+86    pr_info("Read %d bytes, %ld left\n", bytes_read, length); 
 87 
 88    *offset += bytes_read; 
 89 
-90    /* Read functions are supposed to return the number of bytes actually 
-91     * inserted into the buffer. 
-92     */ 
-93    return bytes_read; 
+90    /* Read functions are supposed to return the number of bytes actually 
+91     * inserted into the buffer. 
+92     */ 
+93    return bytes_read; 
 94} 
 95 
-96/* called when somebody tries to write into our device file. */ 
-97static ssize_t device_write(struct file *file, const char __user *buffer, 
-98                            size_t length, loff_t *offset) 
+96/* called when somebody tries to write into our device file. */ 
+97static ssize_t device_write(struct file *file, const char __user *buffer, 
+98                            size_t length, loff_t *offset) 
 99{ 
-100    int i; 
+100    int i; 
 101 
-102    pr_info("device_write(%p,%p,%ld)", file, buffer, length); 
+102    pr_info("device_write(%p,%p,%ld)", file, buffer, length); 
 103 
-104    for (i = 0; i < length && i < BUF_LEN; i++) 
+104    for (i = 0; i < length && i < BUF_LEN; i++) 
 105        get_user(message[i], buffer + i); 
 106 
-107    /* Again, return the number of input characters used. */ 
-108    return i; 
+107    /* Again, return the number of input characters used. */ 
+108    return i; 
 109} 
 110 
-111/* This function is called whenever a process tries to do an ioctl on our 
-112 * device file. We get two extra parameters (additional to the inode and file 
-113 * structures, which all device functions get): the number of the ioctl called 
-114 * and the parameter given to the ioctl function. 
-115 * 
-116 * If the ioctl is write or read/write (meaning output is returned to the 
-117 * calling process), the ioctl call returns the output of this function. 
-118 */ 
-119static long 
-120device_ioctl(struct file *file, /* ditto */ 
-121             unsigned int ioctl_num, /* number and param for ioctl */ 
-122             unsigned long ioctl_param) 
+111/* This function is called whenever a process tries to do an ioctl on our 
+112 * device file. We get two extra parameters (additional to the inode and file 
+113 * structures, which all device functions get): the number of the ioctl called 
+114 * and the parameter given to the ioctl function. 
+115 * 
+116 * If the ioctl is write or read/write (meaning output is returned to the 
+117 * calling process), the ioctl call returns the output of this function. 
+118 */ 
+119static long 
+120device_ioctl(struct file *file, /* ditto */ 
+121             unsigned int ioctl_num, /* number and param for ioctl */ 
+122             unsigned long ioctl_param) 
 123{ 
-124    int i; 
-125    long ret = SUCCESS; 
+124    int i; 
+125    long ret = SUCCESS; 
 126 
-127    /* We don't want to talk to two processes at the same time. */ 
-128    if (atomic_cmpxchg(&already_open, CDEV_NOT_USED, CDEV_EXCLUSIVE_OPEN)) 
-129        return -EBUSY; 
+127    /* We don't want to talk to two processes at the same time. */ 
+128    if (atomic_cmpxchg(&already_open, CDEV_NOT_USED, CDEV_EXCLUSIVE_OPEN)) 
+129        return -EBUSY; 
 130 
-131    /* Switch according to the ioctl called */ 
-132    switch (ioctl_num) { 
-133    case IOCTL_SET_MSG: { 
-134        /* Receive a pointer to a message (in user space) and set that to 
-135         * be the device's message. Get the parameter given to ioctl by 
-136         * the process. 
-137         */ 
-138        char __user *tmp = (char __user *)ioctl_param; 
-139        char ch; 
+131    /* Switch according to the ioctl called */ 
+132    switch (ioctl_num) { 
+133    case IOCTL_SET_MSG: { 
+134        /* Receive a pointer to a message (in user space) and set that to 
+135         * be the device's message. Get the parameter given to ioctl by 
+136         * the process. 
+137         */ 
+138        char __user *tmp = (char __user *)ioctl_param; 
+139        char ch; 
 140 
-141        /* Find the length of the message */ 
+141        /* Find the length of the message */ 
 142        get_user(ch, tmp); 
-143        for (i = 0; ch && i < BUF_LEN; i++, tmp++) 
+143        for (i = 0; ch && i < BUF_LEN; i++, tmp++) 
 144            get_user(ch, tmp); 
 145 
-146        device_write(file, (char __user *)ioctl_param, i, NULL); 
-147        break; 
+146        device_write(file, (char __user *)ioctl_param, i, NULL); 
+147        break; 
 148    } 
-149    case IOCTL_GET_MSG: { 
+149    case IOCTL_GET_MSG: { 
 150        loff_t offset = 0; 
 151 
-152        /* Give the current message to the calling process - the parameter 
-153         * we got is a pointer, fill it. 
-154         */ 
-155        i = device_read(file, (char __user *)ioctl_param, 99, &offset); 
+152        /* Give the current message to the calling process - the parameter 
+153         * we got is a pointer, fill it. 
+154         */ 
+155        i = device_read(file, (char __user *)ioctl_param, 99, &offset); 
 156 
-157        /* Put a zero at the end of the buffer, so it will be properly 
-158         * terminated. 
-159         */ 
-160        put_user('\0', (char __user *)ioctl_param + i); 
-161        break; 
+157        /* Put a zero at the end of the buffer, so it will be properly 
+158         * terminated. 
+159         */ 
+160        put_user('\0', (char __user *)ioctl_param + i); 
+161        break; 
 162    } 
-163    case IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE: 
-164        /* This ioctl is both input (ioctl_param) and output (the return 
-165         * value of this function). 
-166         */ 
-167        ret = (long)message[ioctl_param]; 
-168        break; 
+163    case IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE: 
+164        /* This ioctl is both input (ioctl_param) and output (the return 
+165         * value of this function). 
+166         */ 
+167        ret = (long)message[ioctl_param]; 
+168        break; 
 169    } 
 170 
-171    /* We're now ready for our next caller */ 
+171    /* We're now ready for our next caller */ 
 172    atomic_set(&already_open, CDEV_NOT_USED); 
 173 
-174    return ret; 
+174    return ret; 
 175} 
 176 
-177/* Module Declarations */ 
+177/* Module Declarations */ 
 178 
-179/* This structure will hold the functions to be called when a process does 
-180 * something to the device we created. Since a pointer to this structure 
-181 * is kept in the devices table, it can't be local to init_module. NULL is 
-182 * for unimplemented functions. 
-183 */ 
-184static struct file_operations fops = { 
+179/* This structure will hold the functions to be called when a process does 
+180 * something to the device we created. Since a pointer to this structure 
+181 * is kept in the devices table, it can't be local to init_module. NULL is 
+182 * for unimplemented functions. 
+183 */ 
+184static struct file_operations fops = { 
 185    .read = device_read, 
 186    .write = device_write, 
 187    .unlocked_ioctl = device_ioctl, 
 188    .open = device_open, 
-189    .release = device_release, /* a.k.a. close */ 
+189    .release = device_release, /* a.k.a. close */ 
 190}; 
 191 
-192/* Initialize the module - Register the character device */ 
-193static int __init chardev2_init(void) 
+192/* Initialize the module - Register the character device */ 
+193static int __init chardev2_init(void) 
 194{ 
-195    /* Register the character device (atleast try) */ 
-196    int ret_val = register_chrdev(MAJOR_NUM, DEVICE_NAME, &fops); 
+195    /* Register the character device (atleast try) */ 
+196    int ret_val = register_chrdev(MAJOR_NUM, DEVICE_NAME, &fops); 
 197 
-198    /* Negative values signify an error */ 
-199    if (ret_val < 0) { 
-200        pr_alert("%s failed with %d\n", 
-201                 "Sorry, registering the character device ", ret_val); 
-202        return ret_val; 
+198    /* Negative values signify an error */ 
+199    if (ret_val < 0) { 
+200        pr_alert("%s failed with %d\n", 
+201                 "Sorry, registering the character device ", ret_val); 
+202        return ret_val; 
 203    } 
 204 
 205    cls = class_create(THIS_MODULE, DEVICE_FILE_NAME); 
 206    device_create(cls, NULL, MKDEV(MAJOR_NUM, 0), NULL, DEVICE_FILE_NAME); 
 207 
-208    pr_info("Device created on /dev/%s\n", DEVICE_FILE_NAME); 
+208    pr_info("Device created on /dev/%s\n", DEVICE_FILE_NAME); 
 209 
-210    return 0; 
+210    return 0; 
 211} 
 212 
-213/* Cleanup - unregister the appropriate file from /proc */ 
-214static void __exit chardev2_exit(void) 
+213/* Cleanup - unregister the appropriate file from /proc */ 
+214static void __exit chardev2_exit(void) 
 215{ 
 216    device_destroy(cls, MKDEV(MAJOR_NUM, 0)); 
 217    class_destroy(cls); 
 218 
-219    /* Unregister the device */ 
+219    /* Unregister the device */ 
 220    unregister_chrdev(MAJOR_NUM, DEVICE_NAME); 
 221} 
 222 
 223module_init(chardev2_init); 
 224module_exit(chardev2_exit); 
 225 
-226MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+226MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
 
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * chardev.h - the header file with the ioctl definitions. 
-3 * 
-4 * The declarations here have to be in a header file, because they need 
-5 * to be known both to the kernel module (in chardev2.c) and the process 
-6 * calling ioctl() (in userspace_ioctl.c). 
-7 */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * chardev.h - the header file with the ioctl definitions. 
+3 * 
+4 * The declarations here have to be in a header file, because they need 
+5 * to be known both to the kernel module (in chardev2.c) and the process 
+6 * calling ioctl() (in userspace_ioctl.c). 
+7 */ 
 8 
-9#ifndef CHARDEV_H 
-10#define CHARDEV_H 
+9#ifndef CHARDEV_H 
+10#define CHARDEV_H 
 11 
-12#include <linux/ioctl.h> 
+12#include <linux/ioctl.h> 
 13 
-14/* The major device number. We can not rely on dynamic registration 
-15 * any more, because ioctls need to know it. 
-16 */ 
-17#define MAJOR_NUM 100 
+14/* The major device number. We can not rely on dynamic registration 
+15 * any more, because ioctls need to know it. 
+16 */ 
+17#define MAJOR_NUM 100 
 18 
-19/* Set the message of the device driver */ 
-20#define IOCTL_SET_MSG _IOW(MAJOR_NUM, 0, char *) 
-21/* _IOW means that we are creating an ioctl command number for passing 
-22 * information from a user process to the kernel module. 
-23 * 
-24 * The first arguments, MAJOR_NUM, is the major device number we are using. 
-25 * 
-26 * The second argument is the number of the command (there could be several 
-27 * with different meanings). 
-28 * 
-29 * The third argument is the type we want to get from the process to the 
-30 * kernel. 
-31 */ 
+19/* Set the message of the device driver */ 
+20#define IOCTL_SET_MSG _IOW(MAJOR_NUM, 0, char *) 
+21/* _IOW means that we are creating an ioctl command number for passing 
+22 * information from a user process to the kernel module. 
+23 * 
+24 * The first arguments, MAJOR_NUM, is the major device number we are using. 
+25 * 
+26 * The second argument is the number of the command (there could be several 
+27 * with different meanings). 
+28 * 
+29 * The third argument is the type we want to get from the process to the 
+30 * kernel. 
+31 */ 
 32 
-33/* Get the message of the device driver */ 
-34#define IOCTL_GET_MSG _IOR(MAJOR_NUM, 1, char *) 
-35/* This IOCTL is used for output, to get the message of the device driver. 
-36 * However, we still need the buffer to place the message in to be input, 
-37 * as it is allocated by the process. 
-38 */ 
+33/* Get the message of the device driver */ 
+34#define IOCTL_GET_MSG _IOR(MAJOR_NUM, 1, char *) 
+35/* This IOCTL is used for output, to get the message of the device driver. 
+36 * However, we still need the buffer to place the message in to be input, 
+37 * as it is allocated by the process. 
+38 */ 
 39 
-40/* Get the n'th byte of the message */ 
-41#define IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE _IOWR(MAJOR_NUM, 2, int) 
-42/* The IOCTL is used for both input and output. It receives from the user 
-43 * a number, n, and returns message[n]. 
-44 */ 
+40/* Get the n'th byte of the message */ 
+41#define IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE _IOWR(MAJOR_NUM, 2, int) 
+42/* The IOCTL is used for both input and output. It receives from the user 
+43 * a number, n, and returns message[n]. 
+44 */ 
 45 
-46/* The name of the device file */ 
-47#define DEVICE_FILE_NAME "char_dev" 
-48#define DEVICE_PATH "/dev/char_dev" 
+46/* The name of the device file */ 
+47#define DEVICE_FILE_NAME "char_dev" 
+48#define DEVICE_PATH "/dev/char_dev" 
 49 
-50#endif
    
-                                                                  
-
-                                                                  
+50#endif
    
 
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/*  userspace_ioctl.c - the process to use ioctl's to control the kernel module 
-2 * 
-3 *  Until now we could have used cat for input and output.  But now 
-4 *  we need to do ioctl's, which require writing our own process.  
-5 */ 
+   
    1/*  userspace_ioctl.c - the process to use ioctl's to control the kernel module 
+2 * 
+3 *  Until now we could have used cat for input and output.  But now 
+4 *  we need to do ioctl's, which require writing our own process.  
+5 */ 
 6 
-7/* device specifics, such as ioctl numbers and the  
-8 * major device file. */ 
-9#include "../chardev.h" 
+7/* device specifics, such as ioctl numbers and the  
+8 * major device file. */ 
+9#include "../chardev.h" 
 10 
-11#include <stdio.h> /* standard I/O */ 
-12#include <fcntl.h> /* open */ 
-13#include <unistd.h> /* close */ 
-14#include <stdlib.h> /* exit */ 
-15#include <sys/ioctl.h> /* ioctl */ 
+11#include <stdio.h> /* standard I/O */ 
+12#include <fcntl.h> /* open */ 
+13#include <unistd.h> /* close */ 
+14#include <stdlib.h> /* exit */ 
+15#include <sys/ioctl.h> /* ioctl */ 
 16 
-17/* Functions for the ioctl calls */ 
+17/* Functions for the ioctl calls */ 
 18 
-19int ioctl_set_msg(int file_desc, char *message) 
+19int ioctl_set_msg(int file_desc, char *message) 
 20{ 
-21    int ret_val; 
+21    int ret_val; 
 22 
 23    ret_val = ioctl(file_desc, IOCTL_SET_MSG, message); 
 24 
-25    if (ret_val < 0) { 
-26        printf("ioctl_set_msg failed:%d\n", ret_val); 
+25    if (ret_val < 0) { 
+26        printf("ioctl_set_msg failed:%d\n", ret_val); 
 27    } 
 28 
-29    return ret_val; 
+29    return ret_val; 
 30} 
 31 
-32int ioctl_get_msg(int file_desc) 
+32int ioctl_get_msg(int file_desc) 
 33{ 
-34    int ret_val; 
-35    char message[100] = { 0 }; 
+34    int ret_val; 
+35    char message[100] = { 0 }; 
 36 
-37    /* Warning - this is dangerous because we don't tell  
-38   * the kernel how far it's allowed to write, so it  
-39   * might overflow the buffer. In a real production  
-40   * program, we would have used two ioctls - one to tell 
-41   * the kernel the buffer length and another to give  
-42   * it the buffer to fill 
-43   */ 
+37    /* Warning - this is dangerous because we don't tell  
+38   * the kernel how far it's allowed to write, so it  
+39   * might overflow the buffer. In a real production  
+40   * program, we would have used two ioctls - one to tell 
+41   * the kernel the buffer length and another to give  
+42   * it the buffer to fill 
+43   */ 
 44    ret_val = ioctl(file_desc, IOCTL_GET_MSG, message); 
 45 
-46    if (ret_val < 0) { 
-47        printf("ioctl_get_msg failed:%d\n", ret_val); 
+46    if (ret_val < 0) { 
+47        printf("ioctl_get_msg failed:%d\n", ret_val); 
 48    } 
-49    printf("get_msg message:%s", message); 
+49    printf("get_msg message:%s", message); 
 50 
-51    return ret_val; 
+51    return ret_val; 
 52} 
 53 
-54int ioctl_get_nth_byte(int file_desc) 
+54int ioctl_get_nth_byte(int file_desc) 
 55{ 
-56    int i, c; 
+56    int i, c; 
 57 
-58    printf("get_nth_byte message:"); 
+58    printf("get_nth_byte message:"); 
 59 
 60    i = 0; 
-61    do { 
+61    do { 
 62        c = ioctl(file_desc, IOCTL_GET_NTH_BYTE, i++); 
 63 
-64        if (c < 0) { 
-65            printf("\nioctl_get_nth_byte failed at the %d'th byte:\n", i); 
-66            return c; 
+64        if (c < 0) { 
+65            printf("\nioctl_get_nth_byte failed at the %d'th byte:\n", i); 
+66            return c; 
 67        } 
 68 
 69        putchar(c); 
-70    } while (c != 0); 
+70    } while (c != 0); 
 71 
-72    return 0; 
+72    return 0; 
 73} 
 74 
-75/* Main - Call the ioctl functions */ 
-76int main(void) 
+75/* Main - Call the ioctl functions */ 
+76int main(void) 
 77{ 
-78    int file_desc, ret_val; 
-79    char *msg = "Message passed by ioctl\n"; 
+78    int file_desc, ret_val; 
+79    char *msg = "Message passed by ioctl\n"; 
 80 
 81    file_desc = open(DEVICE_PATH, O_RDWR); 
-82    if (file_desc < 0) { 
-83        printf("Can't open device file: %s, error:%d\n", DEVICE_PATH, 
+82    if (file_desc < 0) { 
+83        printf("Can't open device file: %s, error:%d\n", DEVICE_PATH, 
 84               file_desc); 
 85        exit(EXIT_FAILURE); 
 86    } 
 87 
 88    ret_val = ioctl_set_msg(file_desc, msg); 
-89    if (ret_val) 
-90        goto error; 
+89    if (ret_val) 
+90        goto error; 
 91    ret_val = ioctl_get_nth_byte(file_desc); 
-92    if (ret_val) 
-93        goto error; 
+92    if (ret_val) 
+93        goto error; 
 94    ret_val = ioctl_get_msg(file_desc); 
-95    if (ret_val) 
-96        goto error; 
+95    if (ret_val) 
+96        goto error; 
 97 
 98    close(file_desc); 
-99    return 0; 
+99    return 0; 
 100error: 
 101    close(file_desc); 
 102    exit(EXIT_FAILURE); 
 103}
    
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    10    System Calls
    
-
    So far, the only thing we’ve done was to use well defined kernel mechanisms to
+
    So far, the only thing we’ve done was to use well defined kernel mechanisms to
 register /proc files and device handlers. This is fine if you want to do something the
 kernel programmers thought you’d want, such as write a device driver. But what if
+                                                                  
+
+                                                                  
 you want to do something unusual, to change the behavior of the system in some
 way? Then, you are mostly on your own.
-
       If you are not being sensible and using a virtual machine then this is where kernel
+
       If you are not being sensible and using a virtual machine then this is where kernel
 programming can become hazardous. While writing the example below, I killed the
  open()
  system call. This meant I could not open any files, I could not run any
@@ -3170,7 +3220,7 @@ ensure you do not lose any files, even within a test environment, please run
  right before you do the   insmod
  and the   rmmod
 .
-
       Forget about /proc files, forget about device files. They are just minor details.
+
       Forget about /proc files, forget about device files. They are just minor details.
 Minutiae in the vast expanse of the universe. The real process to kernel
 communication mechanism, the one used by all processes, is system calls. When a
 process requests a service from the kernel (such as opening a file, forking to a new
@@ -3179,22 +3229,19 @@ change the behaviour of the kernel in interesting ways, this is the place to do
 it. By the way, if you want to see which system calls a program uses, run
  strace <arguments>
 .
-
       In general, a process is not supposed to be able to access the kernel. It can not
+
       In general, a process is not supposed to be able to access the kernel. It can not
 access kernel memory and it can’t call kernel functions. The hardware of the CPU
 enforces this (that is the reason why it is called “protected mode” or “page
 protection”).
-
       System calls are an exception to this general rule. What happens is that the
+
       System calls are an exception to this general rule. What happens is that the
 process fills the registers with the appropriate values and then calls a special
 instruction which jumps to a previously defined location in the kernel (of course, that
 location is readable by user processes, it is not writable by them). Under Intel CPUs,
 this is done by means of interrupt 0x80. The hardware knows that once you jump to
 this location, you are no longer running in restricted user mode, but as the
-                                                                  
-
-                                                                  
 operating system kernel — and therefore you’re allowed to do whatever you
 want.
-
       The location in the kernel a process can jump to is called system_call. The
+
       The location in the kernel a process can jump to is called system_call. The
 procedure at that location checks the system call number, which tells the kernel what
 service the process requested. Then, it looks at the table of system calls
 (  sys_call_table
@@ -3204,7 +3251,10 @@ different process, if the process time ran out). If you want to read this code,
 at the source file arch/$(architecture)/kernel/entry.S, after the line
  ENTRY(system_call)
 .
-
       So, if we want to change the way a certain system call works, what we need to do
+
       So, if we want to change the way a certain system call works, what we need to do
+                                                                  
+
+                                                                  
 is to write our own function to implement it (usually by adding a bit of our own
 code, and then calling the original function) and then change the pointer at
  sys_call_table
@@ -3212,7 +3262,7 @@ code, and then calling the original function) and then change the pointer at
 don’t want to leave the system in an unstable state, it’s important for
  cleanup_module
  to restore the table to its original state.
-
       To modify the content of   sys_call_table
+
       To modify the content of   sys_call_table
 , we need to consider the control register. A control register is a processor
 register that changes or controls the general behavior of the CPU. For x86
 architecture, the cr0 register has various control flags that modify the basic
@@ -3225,11 +3275,11 @@ read-only sections Therefore, we must disable the 
       However,   sys_call_table
+
       However,   sys_call_table
  symbol is unexported to prevent misuse. But there have few ways to get the symbol, manual
 symbol lookup and   kallsyms_lookup_name
 . Here we use both depend on the kernel version.
-
       Because of the control-flow integrity, which is a technique to prevent the redirect
+
       Because of the control-flow integrity, which is a technique to prevent the redirect
 execution code from the attacker, for making sure that the indirect calls go to the
 expected addresses and the return addresses are not changed. Since Linux v5.7, the
 kernel patched the series of control-flow enforcement (CET) for x86, and some
@@ -3254,10 +3304,10 @@ COLLECT_GCC_OPTIONS='-v' '-Q' '-O2' '--help=target' '-mtune=generic' '-marc
  GNU C17 (Ubuntu 9.3.0-17ubuntu1~20.04) version 9.3.0 (x86_64-linux-gnu)
 ...
 
    
-
    But CET should not be enabled in the kernel, it may break the Kprobes and bpf.
+
    But CET should not be enabled in the kernel, it may break the Kprobes and bpf.
 Consequently, CET is disabled since v5.11. To guarantee the manual symbol lookup
 worked, we only use up to v5.4.
-
       Unfortunately, since Linux v5.7   kallsyms_lookup_name
+
       Unfortunately, since Linux v5.7   kallsyms_lookup_name
  is also unexported, it needs certain trick to get the address of
  kallsyms_lookup_name
 . If   CONFIG_KPROBES
@@ -3269,7 +3319,7 @@ passes the addresses of the saved registers and the Kprobe struct to the handler
 you defined, then executes it. Kprobes can be registered by symbol name
 or address. Within the symbol name, the address will be handled by the
 kernel.
-
       Otherwise, specify the address of   sys_call_table
+
       Otherwise, specify the address of   sys_call_table
  from /proc/kallsyms and /boot/System.map into
  sym
  parameter. Following is the sample usage for /proc/kallsyms:
@@ -3284,8 +3334,8 @@ ffffffff820013a0 R sys_call_table
 ffffffff820023e0 R ia32_sys_call_table
 $ sudo insmod syscall.ko sym=0xffffffff820013a0
 
    
-
    
-
       Using the address from /boot/System.map, be careful about KASLR (Kernel
+
    
+
       Using the address from /boot/System.map, be careful about KASLR (Kernel
 Address Space Layout Randomization). KASLR may randomize the address of
 kernel code and data at every boot time, such as the static address listed in
 /boot/System.map will offset by some entropy. The purpose of KASLR is to protect
@@ -3314,7 +3364,7 @@ ffffffff82000300 R sys_call_table
 $ sudo grep sys_call_table /proc/kallsyms
 ffffffff86400300 R sys_call_table
 
    
-
    If KASLR is enabled, we have to take care of the address from /proc/kallsyms each
+
    If KASLR is enabled, we have to take care of the address from /proc/kallsyms each
 time we reboot the machine. In order to use the address from /boot/System.map,
 make sure that KASLR is disabled. You can add the nokaslr for disabling KASLR in
 next booting time:
@@ -3330,8 +3380,8 @@ $ grep quiet /etc/default/grub
 GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX_DEFAULT="quiet nokaslr splash"
 $ sudo update-grub
    -

    -

    For more information, check out the following: +

    +

    For more information, check out the following:

    -

    The source code here is an example of such a kernel module. We want to “spy” on a certain +

    The source code here is an example of such a kernel module. We want to “spy” on a certain user, and to pr_info() a message whenever that user opens a file. Towards this end, we replace the system call to open a file with our own function, called @@ -3358,7 +3408,7 @@ spy on, it calls pr_info() to display the name of the file to be opened. Then, either way, it calls the original open() function with the same parameters, to actually open the file. -

    The init_module +

    The init_module function replaces the appropriate location in sys_call_table and keeps the original pointer in a variable. The @@ -3376,7 +3426,7 @@ with B_open , which will call what it thinks is the original system call, A_open , when it’s done. -

    Now, if B is removed first, everything will be well — it will simply restore the system +

    Now, if B is removed first, everything will be well — it will simply restore the system call to A_open , which calls the original. However, if A is removed and then B is removed, the system will crash. A’s removal will restore the system call to the original, @@ -3396,7 +3446,7 @@ problem. When A is removed, it sees that the system call was changed to will still try to call A_open which is no longer there, so that even without removing B the system would crash. -

    Note that all the related problems make syscall stealing unfeasible for +

    Note that all the related problems make syscall stealing unfeasible for production use. In order to keep people from doing potential harmful things sys_call_table is no longer exported. This means, if you want to do something more than a mere @@ -3408,226 +3458,226 @@ dry run of this example, you will have to patch your current kernel in order to exported.

    - 
    1/* 
-2 * syscall.c 
-3 * 
-4 * System call "stealing" sample. 
-5 * 
-6 * Disables page protection at a processor level by changing the 16th bit 
-7 * in the cr0 register (could be Intel specific). 
-8 * 
-9 * Based on example by Peter Jay Salzman and 
-10 * https://bbs.archlinux.org/viewtopic.php?id=139406 
-11 */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * syscall.c 
+3 * 
+4 * System call "stealing" sample. 
+5 * 
+6 * Disables page protection at a processor level by changing the 16th bit 
+7 * in the cr0 register (could be Intel specific). 
+8 * 
+9 * Based on example by Peter Jay Salzman and 
+10 * https://bbs.archlinux.org/viewtopic.php?id=139406 
+11 */ 
 12 
-13#include <linux/delay.h> 
-14#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-15#include <linux/module.h> 
-16#include <linux/moduleparam.h> /* which will have params */ 
-17#include <linux/unistd.h> /* The list of system calls */ 
-18#include <linux/version.h> 
+13#include <linux/delay.h> 
+14#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+15#include <linux/module.h> 
+16#include <linux/moduleparam.h> /* which will have params */ 
+17#include <linux/unistd.h> /* The list of system calls */ 
+18#include <linux/version.h> 
 19 
-20/* For the current (process) structure, we need this to know who the 
-21 * current user is. 
-22 */ 
-23#include <linux/sched.h> 
-24#include <linux/uaccess.h> 
+20/* For the current (process) structure, we need this to know who the 
+21 * current user is. 
+22 */ 
+23#include <linux/sched.h> 
+24#include <linux/uaccess.h> 
 25 
-26/* The way we access "sys_call_table" varies as kernel internal changes. 
-27 * - Prior to v5.4 : manual symbol lookup 
-28 * - v5.5 to v5.6  : use kallsyms_lookup_name() 
-29 * - v5.7+         : Kprobes or specific kernel module parameter 
-30 */ 
+26/* The way we access "sys_call_table" varies as kernel internal changes. 
+27 * - Prior to v5.4 : manual symbol lookup 
+28 * - v5.5 to v5.6  : use kallsyms_lookup_name() 
+29 * - v5.7+         : Kprobes or specific kernel module parameter 
+30 */ 
 31 
-32/* The in-kernel calls to the ksys_close() syscall were removed in Linux v5.11+. 
-33 */ 
-34#if (LINUX_VERSION_CODE < KERNEL_VERSION(5, 7, 0)) 
+32/* The in-kernel calls to the ksys_close() syscall were removed in Linux v5.11+. 
+33 */ 
+34#if (LINUX_VERSION_CODE < KERNEL_VERSION(5, 7, 0)) 
 35 
-36#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE <= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 4, 0) 
-37#define HAVE_KSYS_CLOSE 1 
-38#include <linux/syscalls.h> /* For ksys_close() */ 
-39#else 
-40#include <linux/kallsyms.h> /* For kallsyms_lookup_name */ 
-41#endif 
+36#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE <= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 4, 0) 
+37#define HAVE_KSYS_CLOSE 1 
+38#include <linux/syscalls.h> /* For ksys_close() */ 
+39#else 
+40#include <linux/kallsyms.h> /* For kallsyms_lookup_name */ 
+41#endif 
 42 
-43#else 
+43#else 
 44 
-45#if defined(CONFIG_KPROBES) 
-46#define HAVE_KPROBES 1 
-47#include <linux/kprobes.h> 
-48#else 
-49#define HAVE_PARAM 1 
-50#include <linux/kallsyms.h> /* For sprint_symbol */ 
-51/* The address of the sys_call_table, which can be obtained with looking up 
-52 * "/boot/System.map" or "/proc/kallsyms". When the kernel version is v5.7+, 
-53 * without CONFIG_KPROBES, you can input the parameter or the module will look 
-54 * up all the memory. 
-55 */ 
-56static unsigned long sym = 0; 
+45#if defined(CONFIG_KPROBES) 
+46#define HAVE_KPROBES 1 
+47#include <linux/kprobes.h> 
+48#else 
+49#define HAVE_PARAM 1 
+50#include <linux/kallsyms.h> /* For sprint_symbol */ 
+51/* The address of the sys_call_table, which can be obtained with looking up 
+52 * "/boot/System.map" or "/proc/kallsyms". When the kernel version is v5.7+, 
+53 * without CONFIG_KPROBES, you can input the parameter or the module will look 
+54 * up all the memory. 
+55 */ 
+56static unsigned long sym = 0; 
 57module_param(sym, ulong, 0644); 
-58#endif /* CONFIG_KPROBES */ 
+58#endif /* CONFIG_KPROBES */ 
 59 
-60#endif /* Version < v5.7 */ 
+60#endif /* Version < v5.7 */ 
 61 
-62static unsigned long **sys_call_table; 
+62static unsigned long **sys_call_table; 
 63 
-64/* UID we want to spy on - will be filled from the command line. */ 
-65static int uid; 
-66module_param(uid, int, 0644); 
+64/* UID we want to spy on - will be filled from the command line. */ 
+65static int uid; 
+66module_param(uid, int, 0644); 
 67 
-68/* A pointer to the original system call. The reason we keep this, rather 
-69 * than call the original function (sys_open), is because somebody else 
-70 * might have replaced the system call before us. Note that this is not 
-71 * 100% safe, because if another module replaced sys_open before us, 
-72 * then when we are inserted, we will call the function in that module - 
-73 * and it might be removed before we are. 
-74 * 
-75 * Another reason for this is that we can not get sys_open. 
-76 * It is a static variable, so it is not exported. 
-77 */ 
-78static asmlinkage int (*original_call)(const char *, int, int); 
+68/* A pointer to the original system call. The reason we keep this, rather 
+69 * than call the original function (sys_open), is because somebody else 
+70 * might have replaced the system call before us. Note that this is not 
+71 * 100% safe, because if another module replaced sys_open before us, 
+72 * then when we are inserted, we will call the function in that module - 
+73 * and it might be removed before we are. 
+74 * 
+75 * Another reason for this is that we can not get sys_open. 
+76 * It is a static variable, so it is not exported. 
+77 */ 
+78static asmlinkage int (*original_call)(const char *, int, int); 
 79 
-80/* The function we will replace sys_open (the function called when you 
-81 * call the open system call) with. To find the exact prototype, with 
-82 * the number and type of arguments, we find the original function first 
-83 * (it is at fs/open.c). 
-84 * 
-85 * In theory, this means that we are tied to the current version of the 
-86 * kernel. In practice, the system calls almost never change (it would 
-87 * wreck havoc and require programs to be recompiled, since the system 
-88 * calls are the interface between the kernel and the processes). 
-89 */ 
-90static asmlinkage int our_sys_open(const char *filename, int flags, int mode) 
+80/* The function we will replace sys_open (the function called when you 
+81 * call the open system call) with. To find the exact prototype, with 
+82 * the number and type of arguments, we find the original function first 
+83 * (it is at fs/open.c). 
+84 * 
+85 * In theory, this means that we are tied to the current version of the 
+86 * kernel. In practice, the system calls almost never change (it would 
+87 * wreck havoc and require programs to be recompiled, since the system 
+88 * calls are the interface between the kernel and the processes). 
+89 */ 
+90static asmlinkage int our_sys_open(const char *filename, int flags, int mode) 
 91{ 
-92    int i = 0; 
-93    char ch; 
+92    int i = 0; 
+93    char ch; 
 94 
-95    /* Report the file, if relevant */ 
-96    pr_info("Opened file by %d: ", uid); 
-97    do { 
-98        get_user(ch, (char __user *)filename + i); 
+95    /* Report the file, if relevant */ 
+96    pr_info("Opened file by %d: ", uid); 
+97    do { 
+98        get_user(ch, (char __user *)filename + i); 
 99        i++; 
-100        pr_info("%c", ch); 
-101    } while (ch != 0); 
-102    pr_info("\n"); 
+100        pr_info("%c", ch); 
+101    } while (ch != 0); 
+102    pr_info("\n"); 
 103 
-104    /* Call the original sys_open - otherwise, we lose the ability to 
-105     * open files. 
-106     */ 
-107    return original_call(filename, flags, mode); 
+104    /* Call the original sys_open - otherwise, we lose the ability to 
+105     * open files. 
+106     */ 
+107    return original_call(filename, flags, mode); 
 108} 
 109 
-110static unsigned long **aquire_sys_call_table(void) 
+110static unsigned long **aquire_sys_call_table(void) 
 111{ 
-112#ifdef HAVE_KSYS_CLOSE 
-113    unsigned long int offset = PAGE_OFFSET; 
-114    unsigned long **sct; 
+112#ifdef HAVE_KSYS_CLOSE 
+113    unsigned long int offset = PAGE_OFFSET; 
+114    unsigned long **sct; 
 115 
-116    while (offset < ULLONG_MAX) { 
-117        sct = (unsigned long **)offset; 
+116    while (offset < ULLONG_MAX) { 
+117        sct = (unsigned long **)offset; 
 118 
-119        if (sct[__NR_close] == (unsigned long *)ksys_close) 
-120            return sct; 
+119        if (sct[__NR_close] == (unsigned long *)ksys_close) 
+120            return sct; 
 121 
-122        offset += sizeof(void *); 
+122        offset += sizeof(void *); 
 123    } 
 124 
-125    return NULL; 
-126#endif 
+125    return NULL; 
+126#endif 
 127 
-128#ifdef HAVE_PARAM 
-129    const char sct_name[15] = "sys_call_table"; 
-130    char symbol[40] = { 0 }; 
+128#ifdef HAVE_PARAM 
+129    const char sct_name[15] = "sys_call_table"; 
+130    char symbol[40] = { 0 }; 
 131 
-132    if (sym == 0) { 
-133        pr_alert("For Linux v5.7+, Kprobes is the preferable way to get " 
-134                 "symbol.\n"); 
-135        pr_info("If Kprobes is absent, you have to specify the address of " 
-136                "sys_call_table symbol\n"); 
-137        pr_info("by /boot/System.map or /proc/kallsyms, which contains all the " 
-138                "symbol addresses, into sym parameter.\n"); 
-139        return NULL; 
+132    if (sym == 0) { 
+133        pr_alert("For Linux v5.7+, Kprobes is the preferable way to get " 
+134                 "symbol.\n"); 
+135        pr_info("If Kprobes is absent, you have to specify the address of " 
+136                "sys_call_table symbol\n"); 
+137        pr_info("by /boot/System.map or /proc/kallsyms, which contains all the " 
+138                "symbol addresses, into sym parameter.\n"); 
+139        return NULL; 
 140    } 
 141    sprint_symbol(symbol, sym); 
-142    if (!strncmp(sct_name, symbol, sizeof(sct_name) - 1)) 
-143        return (unsigned long **)sym; 
+142    if (!strncmp(sct_name, symbol, sizeof(sct_name) - 1)) 
+143        return (unsigned long **)sym; 
 144 
-145    return NULL; 
-146#endif 
+145    return NULL; 
+146#endif 
 147 
-148#ifdef HAVE_KPROBES 
-149    unsigned long (*kallsyms_lookup_name)(const char *name); 
-150    struct kprobe kp = { 
-151        .symbol_name = "kallsyms_lookup_name", 
+148#ifdef HAVE_KPROBES 
+149    unsigned long (*kallsyms_lookup_name)(const char *name); 
+150    struct kprobe kp = { 
+151        .symbol_name = "kallsyms_lookup_name", 
 152    }; 
 153 
-154    if (register_kprobe(&kp) < 0) 
-155        return NULL; 
-156    kallsyms_lookup_name = (unsigned long (*)(const char *name))kp.addr; 
+154    if (register_kprobe(&kp) < 0) 
+155        return NULL; 
+156    kallsyms_lookup_name = (unsigned long (*)(const char *name))kp.addr; 
 157    unregister_kprobe(&kp); 
-158#endif 
+158#endif 
 159 
-160    return (unsigned long **)kallsyms_lookup_name("sys_call_table"); 
+160    return (unsigned long **)kallsyms_lookup_name("sys_call_table"); 
 161} 
 162 
-163#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 3, 0) 
-164static inline void __write_cr0(unsigned long cr0) 
+163#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 3, 0) 
+164static inline void __write_cr0(unsigned long cr0) 
 165{ 
-166    asm volatile("mov %0,%%cr0" : "+r"(cr0) : : "memory"); 
+166    asm volatile("mov %0,%%cr0" : "+r"(cr0) : : "memory"); 
 167} 
-168#else 
-169#define __write_cr0 write_cr0 
-170#endif 
+168#else 
+169#define __write_cr0 write_cr0 
+170#endif 
 171 
-172static void enable_write_protection(void) 
+172static void enable_write_protection(void) 
 173{ 
-174    unsigned long cr0 = read_cr0(); 
+174    unsigned long cr0 = read_cr0(); 
 175    set_bit(16, &cr0); 
 176    __write_cr0(cr0); 
 177} 
 178 
-179static void disable_write_protection(void) 
+179static void disable_write_protection(void) 
 180{ 
-181    unsigned long cr0 = read_cr0(); 
+181    unsigned long cr0 = read_cr0(); 
 182    clear_bit(16, &cr0); 
 183    __write_cr0(cr0); 
 184} 
 185 
-186static int __init syscall_start(void) 
+186static int __init syscall_start(void) 
 187{ 
-188    if (!(sys_call_table = aquire_sys_call_table())) 
-189        return -1; 
+188    if (!(sys_call_table = aquire_sys_call_table())) 
+189        return -1; 
 190 
 191    disable_write_protection(); 
 192 
-193    /* keep track of the original open function */ 
-194    original_call = (void *)sys_call_table[__NR_open]; 
+193    /* keep track of the original open function */ 
+194    original_call = (void *)sys_call_table[__NR_open]; 
 195 
-196    /* use our open function instead */ 
-197    sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *)our_sys_open; 
+196    /* use our open function instead */ 
+197    sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *)our_sys_open; 
 198 
 199    enable_write_protection(); 
 200 
-201    pr_info("Spying on UID:%d\n", uid); 
+201    pr_info("Spying on UID:%d\n", uid); 
 202 
-203    return 0; 
+203    return 0; 
 204} 
 205 
-206static void __exit syscall_end(void) 
+206static void __exit syscall_end(void) 
 207{ 
-208    if (!sys_call_table) 
-209        return; 
+208    if (!sys_call_table) 
+209        return; 
 210 
-211    /* Return the system call back to normal */ 
-212    if (sys_call_table[__NR_open] != (unsigned long *)our_sys_open) { 
-213        pr_alert("Somebody else also played with the "); 
-214        pr_alert("open system call\n"); 
-215        pr_alert("The system may be left in "); 
-216        pr_alert("an unstable state.\n"); 
+211    /* Return the system call back to normal */ 
+212    if (sys_call_table[__NR_open] != (unsigned long *)our_sys_open) { 
+213        pr_alert("Somebody else also played with the "); 
+214        pr_alert("open system call\n"); 
+215        pr_alert("The system may be left in "); 
+216        pr_alert("an unstable state.\n"); 
 217    } 
 218 
 219    disable_write_protection(); 
-220    sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *)original_call; 
+220    sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *)original_call; 
 221    enable_write_protection(); 
 222 
 223    msleep(2000); 
@@ -3636,14 +3686,14 @@ dry run of this example, you will have to patch your current kernel in order to
 226module_init(syscall_start); 
 227module_exit(syscall_end); 
 228 
-229MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
    
+229MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    +

    11 Blocking Processes and threads

    -

    +

    11.1 Sleep

    -

    What do you do when somebody asks you for something you can not do right +

    What do you do when somebody asks you for something you can not do right away? If you are a human being and you are bothered by a human being, the only thing you can say is: "Not right now, I’m busy. Go away!". But if you are a kernel module and you are bothered by a process, you have another @@ -3651,21 +3701,21 @@ possibility. You can put the process to sleep until you can service it. After al processes are being put to sleep by the kernel and woken up all the time (that is the way multiple processes appear to run on the same time on a single CPU). -

    This kernel module is an example of this. The file (called /proc/sleep) can only +

    This kernel module is an example of this. The file (called /proc/sleep) can only be opened by a single process at a time. If the file is already open, the kernel module calls wait_event_interruptible . The easiest way to keep a file open is to open it with:

    - 
    1tail -f
    -

    This function changes the status of the task (a task is the kernel data structure + 

    1tail -f
    +

    This function changes the status of the task (a task is the kernel data structure which holds information about a process and the system call it is in, if any) to TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE , which means that the task will not run until it is woken up somehow, and adds it to WaitQ, the queue of tasks waiting to access the file. Then, the function calls the scheduler to context switch to a different process, one which has some use for the CPU. -

    When a process is done with the file, it closes it, and +

    When a process is done with the file, it closes it, and module_close is called. That function wakes up all the processes in the queue (there’s no mechanism to only wake up one of them). It then returns and the process which just @@ -3678,31 +3728,31 @@ Eventually, one of the processes which was in the queue will be given control of the CPU by the scheduler. It starts at the point right after the call to module_interruptible_sleep_on . -

    This means that the process is still in kernel mode - as far as the process +

    This means that the process is still in kernel mode - as far as the process is concerned, it issued the open system call and the system call has not returned yet. The process does not know somebody else used the CPU for most of the time between the moment it issued the call and the moment it returned. -

    It can then proceed to set a global variable to tell all the other processes that the +

    It can then proceed to set a global variable to tell all the other processes that the file is still open and go on with its life. When the other processes get a piece of the CPU, they’ll see that global variable and go back to sleep. -

    So we will use tail -f +

    So we will use tail -f to keep the file open in the background, while trying to access it with another process (again in the background, so that we need not switch to a different vt). As soon as the first background process is killed with kill %1 , the second is woken up, is able to access the file and finally terminates. -

    To make our life more interesting, module_close +

    To make our life more interesting, module_close does not have a monopoly on waking up the processes which wait to access the file. A signal, such as Ctrl +c (SIGINT) can also wake up a process. This is because we used module_interruptible_sleep_on . We could have used module_sleep_on instead, but that would have resulted in extremely angry users whose Ctrl+c’s are ignored. -

    In that case, we want to return with +

    In that case, we want to return with -EINTR immediately. This is important so users can, for example, kill the process before it receives the file. -

    There is one more point to remember. Some times processes don’t want to sleep, they want +

    There is one more point to remember. Some times processes don’t want to sleep, they want either to get what they want immediately, or to be told it cannot be done. Such processes use the O_NONBLOCK flag when opening the file. The kernel is supposed to respond by returning with the error @@ -3738,449 +3788,449 @@ $ cat_nonblock /proc/sleep Last input: $ -

    +

    - 
    1/* 
-2 * sleep.c - create a /proc file, and if several processes try to open it 
-3 * at the same time, put all but one to sleep. 
-4 */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * sleep.c - create a /proc file, and if several processes try to open it 
+3 * at the same time, put all but one to sleep. 
+4 */ 
 5 
-6#include <linux/kernel.h> /* We're doing kernel work */ 
-7#include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */ 
-8#include <linux/proc_fs.h> /* Necessary because we use proc fs */ 
-9#include <linux/sched.h> /* For putting processes to sleep and 
-10                                   waking them up */  
-11#include <linux/uaccess.h> /* for get_user and put_user */ 
-12#include <linux/version.h> 
+6#include <linux/kernel.h> /* We're doing kernel work */ 
+7#include <linux/module.h> /* Specifically, a module */ 
+8#include <linux/proc_fs.h> /* Necessary because we use proc fs */ 
+9#include <linux/sched.h> /* For putting processes to sleep and 
+10                                   waking them up */  
+11#include <linux/uaccess.h> /* for get_user and put_user */ 
+12#include <linux/version.h> 
 13 
-14#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 6, 0) 
-15#define HAVE_PROC_OPS 
-16#endif 
+14#if LINUX_VERSION_CODE >= KERNEL_VERSION(5, 6, 0) 
+15#define HAVE_PROC_OPS 
+16#endif 
 17 
-18/* Here we keep the last message received, to prove that we can process our 
-19 * input. 
-20 */ 
-21#define MESSAGE_LENGTH 80 
-22static char message[MESSAGE_LENGTH]; 
+18/* Here we keep the last message received, to prove that we can process our 
+19 * input. 
+20 */ 
+21#define MESSAGE_LENGTH 80 
+22static char message[MESSAGE_LENGTH]; 
 23 
-24static struct proc_dir_entry *our_proc_file; 
-25#define PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME "sleep" 
+24static struct proc_dir_entry *our_proc_file; 
+25#define PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME "sleep" 
 26 
-27/* Since we use the file operations struct, we can't use the special proc 
-28 * output provisions - we have to use a standard read function, which is this 
-29 * function. 
-30 */ 
-31static ssize_t module_output(struct file *file, /* see include/linux/fs.h   */ 
-32                             char __user *buf, /* The buffer to put data to 
-33                                                   (in the user segment)    */  
-34                             size_t len, /* The length of the buffer */ 
+27/* Since we use the file operations struct, we can't use the special proc 
+28 * output provisions - we have to use a standard read function, which is this 
+29 * function. 
+30 */ 
+31static ssize_t module_output(struct file *file, /* see include/linux/fs.h   */ 
+32                             char __user *buf, /* The buffer to put data to 
+33                                                   (in the user segment)    */  
+34                             size_t len, /* The length of the buffer */ 
 35                             loff_t *offset) 
 36{ 
-37    static int finished = 0; 
-38    int i; 
-39    char output_msg[MESSAGE_LENGTH + 30]; 
+37    static int finished = 0; 
+38    int i; 
+39    char output_msg[MESSAGE_LENGTH + 30]; 
 40 
-41    /* Return 0 to signify end of file - that we have nothing more to say 
-42     * at this point. 
-43     */ 
-44    if (finished) { 
+41    /* Return 0 to signify end of file - that we have nothing more to say 
+42     * at this point. 
+43     */ 
+44    if (finished) { 
 45        finished = 0; 
-46        return 0; 
+46        return 0; 
 47    } 
 48 
-49    sprintf(output_msg, "Last input:%s\n", message); 
-50    for (i = 0; i < len && output_msg[i]; i++) 
+49    sprintf(output_msg, "Last input:%s\n", message); 
+50    for (i = 0; i < len && output_msg[i]; i++) 
 51        put_user(output_msg[i], buf + i); 
 52 
 53    finished = 1; 
-54    return i; /* Return the number of bytes "read" */ 
+54    return i; /* Return the number of bytes "read" */ 
 55} 
 56 
-57/* This function receives input from the user when the user writes to the 
-58 * /proc file. 
-59 */ 
-60static ssize_t module_input(struct file *file, /* The file itself */ 
-61                            const char __user *buf, /* The buffer with input */ 
-62                            size_t length, /* The buffer's length */ 
-63                            loff_t *offset) /* offset to file - ignore */ 
+57/* This function receives input from the user when the user writes to the 
+58 * /proc file. 
+59 */ 
+60static ssize_t module_input(struct file *file, /* The file itself */ 
+61                            const char __user *buf, /* The buffer with input */ 
+62                            size_t length, /* The buffer's length */ 
+63                            loff_t *offset) /* offset to file - ignore */ 
 64{ 
-65    int i; 
+65    int i; 
 66 
-67    /* Put the input into Message, where module_output will later be able 
-68     * to use it. 
-69     */ 
-70    for (i = 0; i < MESSAGE_LENGTH - 1 && i < length; i++) 
+67    /* Put the input into Message, where module_output will later be able 
+68     * to use it. 
+69     */ 
+70    for (i = 0; i < MESSAGE_LENGTH - 1 && i < length; i++) 
 71        get_user(message[i], buf + i); 
-72    /* we want a standard, zero terminated string */ 
-73    message[i] = '\0'; 
+72    /* we want a standard, zero terminated string */ 
+73    message[i] = '\0'; 
 74 
-75    /* We need to return the number of input characters used */ 
-76    return i; 
+75    /* We need to return the number of input characters used */ 
+76    return i; 
 77} 
 78 
-79/* 1 if the file is currently open by somebody */ 
-80static atomic_t already_open = ATOMIC_INIT(0); 
+79/* 1 if the file is currently open by somebody */ 
+80static atomic_t already_open = ATOMIC_INIT(0); 
 81 
-82/* Queue of processes who want our file */ 
-83static DECLARE_WAIT_QUEUE_HEAD(waitq); 
+82/* Queue of processes who want our file */ 
+83static DECLARE_WAIT_QUEUE_HEAD(waitq); 
 84 
-85/* Called when the /proc file is opened */ 
-86static int module_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+85/* Called when the /proc file is opened */ 
+86static int module_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
 87{ 
-88    /* If the file's flags include O_NONBLOCK, it means the process does not 
-89     * want to wait for the file. In this case, if the file is already open, 
-90     * we should fail with -EAGAIN, meaning "you will have to try again", 
-91     * instead of blocking a process which would rather stay awake. 
-92     */ 
-93    if ((file->f_flags & O_NONBLOCK) && atomic_read(&already_open)) 
-94        return -EAGAIN; 
+88    /* If the file's flags include O_NONBLOCK, it means the process does not 
+89     * want to wait for the file. In this case, if the file is already open, 
+90     * we should fail with -EAGAIN, meaning "you will have to try again", 
+91     * instead of blocking a process which would rather stay awake. 
+92     */ 
+93    if ((file->f_flags & O_NONBLOCK) && atomic_read(&already_open)) 
+94        return -EAGAIN; 
 95 
-96    /* This is the correct place for try_module_get(THIS_MODULE) because if 
-97     * a process is in the loop, which is within the kernel module, 
-98     * the kernel module must not be removed. 
-99     */ 
+96    /* This is the correct place for try_module_get(THIS_MODULE) because if 
+97     * a process is in the loop, which is within the kernel module, 
+98     * the kernel module must not be removed. 
+99     */ 
 100    try_module_get(THIS_MODULE); 
 101 
-102    while (atomic_cmpxchg(&already_open, 0, 1)) { 
-103        int i, is_sig = 0; 
+102    while (atomic_cmpxchg(&already_open, 0, 1)) { 
+103        int i, is_sig = 0; 
 104 
-105        /* This function puts the current process, including any system 
-106         * calls, such as us, to sleep.  Execution will be resumed right 
-107         * after the function call, either because somebody called 
-108         * wake_up(&waitq) (only module_close does that, when the file 
-109         * is closed) or when a signal, such as Ctrl-C, is sent 
-110         * to the process 
-111         */ 
+105        /* This function puts the current process, including any system 
+106         * calls, such as us, to sleep.  Execution will be resumed right 
+107         * after the function call, either because somebody called 
+108         * wake_up(&waitq) (only module_close does that, when the file 
+109         * is closed) or when a signal, such as Ctrl-C, is sent 
+110         * to the process 
+111         */ 
 112        wait_event_interruptible(waitq, !atomic_read(&already_open)); 
 113 
-114        /* If we woke up because we got a signal we're not blocking, 
-115         * return -EINTR (fail the system call).  This allows processes 
-116         * to be killed or stopped. 
-117         */ 
-118        for (i = 0; i < _NSIG_WORDS && !is_sig; i++) 
+114        /* If we woke up because we got a signal we're not blocking, 
+115         * return -EINTR (fail the system call).  This allows processes 
+116         * to be killed or stopped. 
+117         */ 
+118        for (i = 0; i < _NSIG_WORDS && !is_sig; i++) 
 119            is_sig = current->pending.signal.sig[i] & ~current->blocked.sig[i]; 
 120 
-121        if (is_sig) { 
-122            /* It is important to put module_put(THIS_MODULE) here, because 
-123             * for processes where the open is interrupted there will never 
-124             * be a corresponding close. If we do not decrement the usage 
-125             * count here, we will be left with a positive usage count 
-126             * which we will have no way to bring down to zero, giving us 
-127             * an immortal module, which can only be killed by rebooting 
-128             * the machine. 
-129             */ 
+121        if (is_sig) { 
+122            /* It is important to put module_put(THIS_MODULE) here, because 
+123             * for processes where the open is interrupted there will never 
+124             * be a corresponding close. If we do not decrement the usage 
+125             * count here, we will be left with a positive usage count 
+126             * which we will have no way to bring down to zero, giving us 
+127             * an immortal module, which can only be killed by rebooting 
+128             * the machine. 
+129             */ 
 130            module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
-131            return -EINTR; 
+131            return -EINTR; 
 132        } 
 133    } 
 134 
-135    return 0; /* Allow the access */ 
+135    return 0; /* Allow the access */ 
 136} 
 137 
-138/* Called when the /proc file is closed */ 
-139static int module_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+138/* Called when the /proc file is closed */ 
+139static int module_close(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
 140{ 
-141    /* Set already_open to zero, so one of the processes in the waitq will 
-142     * be able to set already_open back to one and to open the file. All 
-143     * the other processes will be called when already_open is back to one, 
-144     * so they'll go back to sleep. 
-145     */ 
+141    /* Set already_open to zero, so one of the processes in the waitq will 
+142     * be able to set already_open back to one and to open the file. All 
+143     * the other processes will be called when already_open is back to one, 
+144     * so they'll go back to sleep. 
+145     */ 
 146    atomic_set(&already_open, 0); 
 147 
-148    /* Wake up all the processes in waitq, so if anybody is waiting for the 
-149     * file, they can have it. 
-150     */ 
+148    /* Wake up all the processes in waitq, so if anybody is waiting for the 
+149     * file, they can have it. 
+150     */ 
 151    wake_up(&waitq); 
 152 
 153    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
 154 
-155    return 0; /* success */ 
+155    return 0; /* success */ 
 156} 
 157 
-158/* Structures to register as the /proc file, with pointers to all the relevant 
-159 * functions. 
-160 */ 
+158/* Structures to register as the /proc file, with pointers to all the relevant 
+159 * functions. 
+160 */ 
 161 
-162/* File operations for our proc file. This is where we place pointers to all 
-163 * the functions called when somebody tries to do something to our file. NULL 
-164 * means we don't want to deal with something. 
-165 */ 
-166#ifdef HAVE_PROC_OPS 
-167static const struct proc_ops file_ops_4_our_proc_file = { 
-168    .proc_read = module_output, /* "read" from the file */ 
-169    .proc_write = module_input, /* "write" to the file */ 
-170    .proc_open = module_open, /* called when the /proc file is opened */ 
-171    .proc_release = module_close, /* called when it's closed */ 
+162/* File operations for our proc file. This is where we place pointers to all 
+163 * the functions called when somebody tries to do something to our file. NULL 
+164 * means we don't want to deal with something. 
+165 */ 
+166#ifdef HAVE_PROC_OPS 
+167static const struct proc_ops file_ops_4_our_proc_file = { 
+168    .proc_read = module_output, /* "read" from the file */ 
+169    .proc_write = module_input, /* "write" to the file */ 
+170    .proc_open = module_open, /* called when the /proc file is opened */ 
+171    .proc_release = module_close, /* called when it's closed */ 
 172}; 
-173#else 
-174static const struct file_operations file_ops_4_our_proc_file = { 
+173#else 
+174static const struct file_operations file_ops_4_our_proc_file = { 
 175    .read = module_output, 
 176    .write = module_input, 
 177    .open = module_open, 
 178    .release = module_close, 
 179}; 
-180#endif 
+180#endif 
 181 
-182/* Initialize the module - register the proc file */ 
-183static int __init sleep_init(void) 
+182/* Initialize the module - register the proc file */ 
+183static int __init sleep_init(void) 
 184{ 
 185    our_proc_file = 
 186        proc_create(PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME, 0644, NULL, &file_ops_4_our_proc_file); 
-187    if (our_proc_file == NULL) { 
+187    if (our_proc_file == NULL) { 
 188        remove_proc_entry(PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME, NULL); 
-189        pr_debug("Error: Could not initialize /proc/%s\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
-190        return -ENOMEM; 
+189        pr_debug("Error: Could not initialize /proc/%s\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
+190        return -ENOMEM; 
 191    } 
 192    proc_set_size(our_proc_file, 80); 
 193    proc_set_user(our_proc_file, GLOBAL_ROOT_UID, GLOBAL_ROOT_GID); 
 194 
-195    pr_info("/proc/%s created\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
+195    pr_info("/proc/%s created\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
 196 
-197    return 0; 
+197    return 0; 
 198} 
 199 
-200/* Cleanup - unregister our file from /proc.  This could get dangerous if 
-201 * there are still processes waiting in waitq, because they are inside our 
-202 * open function, which will get unloaded. I'll explain how to avoid removal 
-203 * of a kernel module in such a case in chapter 10. 
-204 */ 
-205static void __exit sleep_exit(void) 
+200/* Cleanup - unregister our file from /proc.  This could get dangerous if 
+201 * there are still processes waiting in waitq, because they are inside our 
+202 * open function, which will get unloaded. I'll explain how to avoid removal 
+203 * of a kernel module in such a case in chapter 10. 
+204 */ 
+205static void __exit sleep_exit(void) 
 206{ 
 207    remove_proc_entry(PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME, NULL); 
-208    pr_debug("/proc/%s removed\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
+208    pr_debug("/proc/%s removed\n", PROC_ENTRY_FILENAME); 
 209} 
 210 
 211module_init(sleep_init); 
 212module_exit(sleep_exit); 
 213 
-214MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+214MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

    - 
    1/* 
-2 *  cat_nonblock.c - open a file and display its contents, but exit rather than 
-3 *  wait for input. 
-4 */ 
-5#include <errno.h> /* for errno */ 
-6#include <fcntl.h> /* for open */ 
-7#include <stdio.h> /* standard I/O */ 
-8#include <stdlib.h> /* for exit */ 
-9#include <unistd.h> /* for read */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 *  cat_nonblock.c - open a file and display its contents, but exit rather than 
+3 *  wait for input. 
+4 */ 
+5#include <errno.h> /* for errno */ 
+6#include <fcntl.h> /* for open */ 
+7#include <stdio.h> /* standard I/O */ 
+8#include <stdlib.h> /* for exit */ 
+9#include <unistd.h> /* for read */ 
 10 
-11#define MAX_BYTES 1024 * 4 
+11#define MAX_BYTES 1024 * 4 
 12 
-13int main(int argc, char *argv[]) 
+13int main(int argc, char *argv[]) 
 14{ 
-15    int fd; /* The file descriptor for the file to read */ 
-16    size_t bytes; /* The number of bytes read */ 
-17    char buffer[MAX_BYTES]; /* The buffer for the bytes */ 
+15    int fd; /* The file descriptor for the file to read */ 
+16    size_t bytes; /* The number of bytes read */ 
+17    char buffer[MAX_BYTES]; /* The buffer for the bytes */ 
 18 
-19    /* Usage */ 
-20    if (argc != 2) { 
-21        printf("Usage: %s <filename>\n", argv[0]); 
-22        puts("Reads the content of a file, but doesn't wait for input"); 
+19    /* Usage */ 
+20    if (argc != 2) { 
+21        printf("Usage: %s <filename>\n", argv[0]); 
+22        puts("Reads the content of a file, but doesn't wait for input"); 
 23        exit(-1); 
 24    } 
 25 
-26    /* Open the file for reading in non blocking mode */ 
+26    /* Open the file for reading in non blocking mode */ 
 27    fd = open(argv[1], O_RDONLY | O_NONBLOCK); 
 28 
-29    /* If open failed */ 
-30    if (fd == -1) { 
-31        puts(errno == EAGAIN ? "Open would block" : "Open failed"); 
+29    /* If open failed */ 
+30    if (fd == -1) { 
+31        puts(errno == EAGAIN ? "Open would block" : "Open failed"); 
 32        exit(-1); 
 33    } 
 34 
-35    /* Read the file and output its contents */ 
-36    do { 
-37        /* Read characters from the file */ 
+35    /* Read the file and output its contents */ 
+36    do { 
+37        /* Read characters from the file */ 
 38        bytes = read(fd, buffer, MAX_BYTES); 
 39 
-40        /* If there's an error, report it and die */ 
-41        if (bytes == -1) { 
-42            if (errno == EAGAIN) 
-43                puts("Normally I'd block, but you told me not to"); 
-44            else 
-45                puts("Another read error"); 
+40        /* If there's an error, report it and die */ 
+41        if (bytes == -1) { 
+42            if (errno == EAGAIN) 
+43                puts("Normally I'd block, but you told me not to"); 
+44            else 
+45                puts("Another read error"); 
 46            exit(-1); 
 47        } 
 48 
-49        /* Print the characters */ 
-50        if (bytes > 0) { 
-51            for (int i = 0; i < bytes; i++) 
+49        /* Print the characters */ 
+50        if (bytes > 0) { 
+51            for (int i = 0; i < bytes; i++) 
 52                putchar(buffer[i]); 
 53        } 
 54 
-55        /* While there are no errors and the file isn't over */ 
-56    } while (bytes > 0); 
+55        /* While there are no errors and the file isn't over */ 
+56    } while (bytes > 0); 
 57 
-58    return 0; 
+58    return 0; 
 59}
    
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    11.2    Completions
    
-
    Sometimes one thing should happen before another within a module having multiple threads.
+
    Sometimes one thing should happen before another within a module having multiple threads.
 Rather than using   /bin/sleep
  commands, the kernel has another way to do this which allows timeouts or
 interrupts to also happen.
-
       In the following example two threads are started, but one needs to start before
+
       In the following example two threads are started, but one needs to start before
 another.
 
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * completions.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/completion.h> 
-5#include <linux/init.h> 
-6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-7#include <linux/kthread.h> 
-8#include <linux/module.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * completions.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/completion.h> 
+5#include <linux/init.h> 
+6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+7#include <linux/kthread.h> 
+8#include <linux/module.h> 
 9 
-10static struct { 
-11    struct completion crank_comp; 
-12    struct completion flywheel_comp; 
+10static struct { 
+11    struct completion crank_comp; 
+12    struct completion flywheel_comp; 
 13} machine; 
 14 
-15static int machine_crank_thread(void *arg) 
+15static int machine_crank_thread(void *arg) 
 16{ 
-17    pr_info("Turn the crank\n"); 
+17    pr_info("Turn the crank\n"); 
 18 
 19    complete_all(&machine.crank_comp); 
 20    complete_and_exit(&machine.crank_comp, 0); 
 21} 
 22 
-23static int machine_flywheel_spinup_thread(void *arg) 
+23static int machine_flywheel_spinup_thread(void *arg) 
 24{ 
 25    wait_for_completion(&machine.crank_comp); 
 26 
-27    pr_info("Flywheel spins up\n"); 
+27    pr_info("Flywheel spins up\n"); 
 28 
 29    complete_all(&machine.flywheel_comp); 
 30    complete_and_exit(&machine.flywheel_comp, 0); 
 31} 
 32 
-33static int completions_init(void) 
+33static int completions_init(void) 
 34{ 
-35    struct task_struct *crank_thread; 
-36    struct task_struct *flywheel_thread; 
+35    struct task_struct *crank_thread; 
+36    struct task_struct *flywheel_thread; 
 37 
-38    pr_info("completions example\n"); 
+38    pr_info("completions example\n"); 
 39 
 40    init_completion(&machine.crank_comp); 
 41    init_completion(&machine.flywheel_comp); 
 42 
-43    crank_thread = kthread_create(machine_crank_thread, NULL, "KThread Crank"); 
-44    if (IS_ERR(crank_thread)) 
-45        goto ERROR_THREAD_1; 
+43    crank_thread = kthread_create(machine_crank_thread, NULL, "KThread Crank"); 
+44    if (IS_ERR(crank_thread)) 
+45        goto ERROR_THREAD_1; 
 46 
 47    flywheel_thread = kthread_create(machine_flywheel_spinup_thread, NULL, 
-48                                     "KThread Flywheel"); 
-49    if (IS_ERR(flywheel_thread)) 
-50        goto ERROR_THREAD_2; 
+48                                     "KThread Flywheel"); 
+49    if (IS_ERR(flywheel_thread)) 
+50        goto ERROR_THREAD_2; 
 51 
 52    wake_up_process(flywheel_thread); 
 53    wake_up_process(crank_thread); 
 54 
-55    return 0; 
+55    return 0; 
 56 
 57ERROR_THREAD_2: 
 58    kthread_stop(crank_thread); 
 59ERROR_THREAD_1: 
 60 
-61    return -1; 
+61    return -1; 
 62} 
 63 
-64static void completions_exit(void) 
+64static void completions_exit(void) 
 65{ 
 66    wait_for_completion(&machine.crank_comp); 
 67    wait_for_completion(&machine.flywheel_comp); 
 68 
-69    pr_info("completions exit\n"); 
+69    pr_info("completions exit\n"); 
 70} 
 71 
 72module_init(completions_init); 
 73module_exit(completions_exit); 
 74 
-75MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Completions example"); 
-76MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
       The   machine
+75MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Completions example"); 
+76MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
       The   machine
  structure stores the completion states for the two threads. At the exit
 point of each thread the respective completion state is updated, and
  wait_for_completion
  is used by the flywheel thread to ensure that it does not begin prematurely.
-
       So even though   flywheel_thread
+
       So even though   flywheel_thread
  is started first you should notice if you load this module and run
  dmesg
  that turning the crank always happens first because the flywheel thread waits for it
 to complete.
-
       There are other variations upon the
+
       There are other variations upon the
  wait_for_completion
  function, which include timeouts or being interrupted, but this basic mechanism is
 enough for many common situations without adding a lot of complexity.
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    12    Avoiding Collisions and Deadlocks
    
-
    If processes running on different CPUs or in different threads try to access the same
+
    If processes running on different CPUs or in different threads try to access the same
 memory, then it is possible that strange things can happen or your system can lock
 up. To avoid this, various types of mutual exclusion kernel functions are available.
 These indicate if a section of code is "locked" or "unlocked" so that simultaneous
 attempts to run it can not happen.
 
    
    
    12.1    Mutex
    
-
    You can use kernel mutexes (mutual exclusions) in much the same manner that you
+
    You can use kernel mutexes (mutual exclusions) in much the same manner that you
 might deploy them in userland. This may be all that is needed to avoid collisions in
 most cases.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * example_mutex.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/init.h> 
-5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-6#include <linux/module.h> 
-7#include <linux/mutex.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * example_mutex.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/init.h> 
+5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+6#include <linux/module.h> 
+7#include <linux/mutex.h> 
 8 
-9static DEFINE_MUTEX(mymutex); 
+9static DEFINE_MUTEX(mymutex); 
 10 
-11static int example_mutex_init(void) 
+11static int example_mutex_init(void) 
 12{ 
-13    int ret; 
+13    int ret; 
 14 
-15    pr_info("example_mutex init\n"); 
+15    pr_info("example_mutex init\n"); 
 16 
 17    ret = mutex_trylock(&mymutex); 
-18    if (ret != 0) { 
-19        pr_info("mutex is locked\n"); 
+18    if (ret != 0) { 
+19        pr_info("mutex is locked\n"); 
 20 
-21        if (mutex_is_locked(&mymutex) == 0) 
-22            pr_info("The mutex failed to lock!\n"); 
+21        if (mutex_is_locked(&mymutex) == 0) 
+22            pr_info("The mutex failed to lock!\n"); 
 23 
 24        mutex_unlock(&mymutex); 
-25        pr_info("mutex is unlocked\n"); 
-26    } else 
-27        pr_info("Failed to lock\n"); 
+25        pr_info("mutex is unlocked\n"); 
+26    } else 
+27        pr_info("Failed to lock\n"); 
 28 
-29    return 0; 
+29    return 0; 
 30} 
 31 
-32static void example_mutex_exit(void) 
+32static void example_mutex_exit(void) 
 33{ 
-34    pr_info("example_mutex exit\n"); 
+34    pr_info("example_mutex exit\n"); 
 35} 
 36 
 37module_init(example_mutex_init); 
 38module_exit(example_mutex_exit); 
 39 
-40MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Mutex example"); 
-41MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
    
+40MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Mutex example"); 
+41MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    12.2    Spinlocks
    
-
    As the name suggests, spinlocks lock up the CPU that the code is running on,
+
    As the name suggests, spinlocks lock up the CPU that the code is running on,
 taking 100% of its resources. Because of this you should only use the spinlock
                                                                   
 
@@ -4188,79 +4238,79 @@ taking 100% of its resources. Because of this you should only use the spinlock
 mechanism around code which is likely to take no more than a few milliseconds to
 run and so will not noticeably slow anything down from the user’s point of
 view.
-
       The example here is "irq safe" in that if interrupts happen during the lock then
+
       The example here is "irq safe" in that if interrupts happen during the lock then
 they will not be forgotten and will activate when the unlock happens, using the
  flags
  variable to retain their state.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * example_spinlock.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/init.h> 
-5#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-7#include <linux/module.h> 
-8#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * example_spinlock.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/init.h> 
+5#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
+8#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
 9 
-10static DEFINE_SPINLOCK(sl_static); 
-11static spinlock_t sl_dynamic; 
+10static DEFINE_SPINLOCK(sl_static); 
+11static spinlock_t sl_dynamic; 
 12 
-13static void example_spinlock_static(void) 
+13static void example_spinlock_static(void) 
 14{ 
-15    unsigned long flags; 
+15    unsigned long flags; 
 16 
 17    spin_lock_irqsave(&sl_static, flags); 
-18    pr_info("Locked static spinlock\n"); 
+18    pr_info("Locked static spinlock\n"); 
 19 
-20    /* Do something or other safely. Because this uses 100% CPU time, this 
-21     * code should take no more than a few milliseconds to run. 
-22     */ 
+20    /* Do something or other safely. Because this uses 100% CPU time, this 
+21     * code should take no more than a few milliseconds to run. 
+22     */ 
 23 
 24    spin_unlock_irqrestore(&sl_static, flags); 
-25    pr_info("Unlocked static spinlock\n"); 
+25    pr_info("Unlocked static spinlock\n"); 
 26} 
 27 
-28static void example_spinlock_dynamic(void) 
+28static void example_spinlock_dynamic(void) 
 29{ 
-30    unsigned long flags; 
+30    unsigned long flags; 
 31 
 32    spin_lock_init(&sl_dynamic); 
 33    spin_lock_irqsave(&sl_dynamic, flags); 
-34    pr_info("Locked dynamic spinlock\n"); 
+34    pr_info("Locked dynamic spinlock\n"); 
 35 
-36    /* Do something or other safely. Because this uses 100% CPU time, this 
-37     * code should take no more than a few milliseconds to run. 
-38     */ 
+36    /* Do something or other safely. Because this uses 100% CPU time, this 
+37     * code should take no more than a few milliseconds to run. 
+38     */ 
 39 
 40    spin_unlock_irqrestore(&sl_dynamic, flags); 
-41    pr_info("Unlocked dynamic spinlock\n"); 
+41    pr_info("Unlocked dynamic spinlock\n"); 
 42} 
 43 
-44static int example_spinlock_init(void) 
+44static int example_spinlock_init(void) 
 45{ 
-46    pr_info("example spinlock started\n"); 
+46    pr_info("example spinlock started\n"); 
 47 
 48    example_spinlock_static(); 
 49    example_spinlock_dynamic(); 
 50 
-51    return 0; 
+51    return 0; 
 52} 
 53 
-54static void example_spinlock_exit(void) 
+54static void example_spinlock_exit(void) 
 55{ 
-56    pr_info("example spinlock exit\n"); 
+56    pr_info("example spinlock exit\n"); 
 57} 
 58 
 59module_init(example_spinlock_init); 
 60module_exit(example_spinlock_exit); 
 61 
-62MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Spinlock example"); 
-63MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
    
+62MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Spinlock example"); 
+63MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    12.3    Read and write locks
    
-
    Read and write locks are specialised kinds of spinlocks so that you can exclusively
+
    Read and write locks are specialised kinds of spinlocks so that you can exclusively
 read from something or write to something. Like the earlier spinlocks example, the
 one below shows an "irq safe" situation in which if other functions were triggered
 from irqs which might also read and write to whatever you are concerned with
@@ -4270,69 +4320,69 @@ the system and cause users to start revolting against the tyranny of your
 module.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * example_rwlock.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-6#include <linux/module.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * example_rwlock.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+6#include <linux/module.h> 
 7 
-8static DEFINE_RWLOCK(myrwlock); 
+8static DEFINE_RWLOCK(myrwlock); 
 9 
-10static void example_read_lock(void) 
+10static void example_read_lock(void) 
 11{ 
-12    unsigned long flags; 
+12    unsigned long flags; 
 13 
 14    read_lock_irqsave(&myrwlock, flags); 
-15    pr_info("Read Locked\n"); 
+15    pr_info("Read Locked\n"); 
 16 
-17    /* Read from something */ 
+17    /* Read from something */ 
 18 
 19    read_unlock_irqrestore(&myrwlock, flags); 
-20    pr_info("Read Unlocked\n"); 
+20    pr_info("Read Unlocked\n"); 
 21} 
 22 
-23static void example_write_lock(void) 
+23static void example_write_lock(void) 
 24{ 
-25    unsigned long flags; 
+25    unsigned long flags; 
 26 
 27    write_lock_irqsave(&myrwlock, flags); 
-28    pr_info("Write Locked\n"); 
+28    pr_info("Write Locked\n"); 
 29 
-30    /* Write to something */ 
+30    /* Write to something */ 
 31 
 32    write_unlock_irqrestore(&myrwlock, flags); 
-33    pr_info("Write Unlocked\n"); 
+33    pr_info("Write Unlocked\n"); 
 34} 
 35 
-36static int example_rwlock_init(void) 
+36static int example_rwlock_init(void) 
 37{ 
-38    pr_info("example_rwlock started\n"); 
+38    pr_info("example_rwlock started\n"); 
 39 
 40    example_read_lock(); 
 41    example_write_lock(); 
 42 
-43    return 0; 
+43    return 0; 
 44} 
 45 
-46static void example_rwlock_exit(void) 
+46static void example_rwlock_exit(void) 
 47{ 
-48    pr_info("example_rwlock exit\n"); 
+48    pr_info("example_rwlock exit\n"); 
 49} 
 50 
 51module_init(example_rwlock_init); 
 52module_exit(example_rwlock_exit); 
 53 
-54MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Read/Write locks example"); 
-55MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
       Of course, if you know for sure that there are no functions triggered by irqs
+54MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Read/Write locks example"); 
+55MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
       Of course, if you know for sure that there are no functions triggered by irqs
 which could possibly interfere with your logic then you can use the simpler
  read_lock(&myrwlock)
  and   read_unlock(&myrwlock)
  or the corresponding write functions.
 
    
    
    12.4    Atomic operations
    
-
    If you are doing simple arithmetic: adding, subtracting or bitwise operations, then
+
    If you are doing simple arithmetic: adding, subtracting or bitwise operations, then
 there is another way in the multi-CPU and multi-hyperthreaded world to stop other
 parts of the system from messing with your mojo. By using atomic operations you
 can be confident that your addition, subtraction or bit flip did actually happen
@@ -4340,84 +4390,84 @@ and was not overwritten by some other shenanigans. An example is shown
 below.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * example_atomic.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-6#include <linux/module.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * example_atomic.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+5#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+6#include <linux/module.h> 
 7 
-8#define BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN "%c%c%c%c%c%c%c%c" 
-9#define BYTE_TO_BINARY(byte)                                                   \ 
-10    ((byte & 0x80) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x40) ? '1' : '0'),                  \ 
-11        ((byte & 0x20) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x10) ? '1' : '0'),              \ 
-12        ((byte & 0x08) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x04) ? '1' : '0'),              \ 
-13        ((byte & 0x02) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x01) ? '1' : '0') 
+8#define BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN "%c%c%c%c%c%c%c%c" 
+9#define BYTE_TO_BINARY(byte)                                                   \ 
+10    ((byte & 0x80) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x40) ? '1' : '0'),                  \ 
+11        ((byte & 0x20) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x10) ? '1' : '0'),              \ 
+12        ((byte & 0x08) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x04) ? '1' : '0'),              \ 
+13        ((byte & 0x02) ? '1' : '0'), ((byte & 0x01) ? '1' : '0') 
 14 
-15static void atomic_add_subtract(void) 
+15static void atomic_add_subtract(void) 
 16{ 
 17    atomic_t debbie; 
 18    atomic_t chris = ATOMIC_INIT(50); 
 19 
 20    atomic_set(&debbie, 45); 
 21 
-22    /* subtract one */ 
+22    /* subtract one */ 
 23    atomic_dec(&debbie); 
 24 
 25    atomic_add(7, &debbie); 
 26 
-27    /* add one */ 
+27    /* add one */ 
 28    atomic_inc(&debbie); 
 29 
-30    pr_info("chris: %d, debbie: %d\n", atomic_read(&chris), 
+30    pr_info("chris: %d, debbie: %d\n", atomic_read(&chris), 
 31            atomic_read(&debbie)); 
 32} 
 33 
-34static void atomic_bitwise(void) 
+34static void atomic_bitwise(void) 
 35{ 
-36    unsigned long word = 0; 
+36    unsigned long word = 0; 
 37 
-38    pr_info("Bits 0: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+38    pr_info("Bits 0: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
 39    set_bit(3, &word); 
 40    set_bit(5, &word); 
-41    pr_info("Bits 1: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+41    pr_info("Bits 1: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
 42    clear_bit(5, &word); 
-43    pr_info("Bits 2: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+43    pr_info("Bits 2: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
 44    change_bit(3, &word); 
 45 
-46    pr_info("Bits 3: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
-47    if (test_and_set_bit(3, &word)) 
-48        pr_info("wrong\n"); 
-49    pr_info("Bits 4: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+46    pr_info("Bits 3: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+47    if (test_and_set_bit(3, &word)) 
+48        pr_info("wrong\n"); 
+49    pr_info("Bits 4: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
 50 
 51    word = 255; 
-52    pr_info("Bits 5: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
+52    pr_info("Bits 5: " BYTE_TO_BINARY_PATTERN, BYTE_TO_BINARY(word)); 
 53} 
 54 
-55static int example_atomic_init(void) 
+55static int example_atomic_init(void) 
 56{ 
-57    pr_info("example_atomic started\n"); 
+57    pr_info("example_atomic started\n"); 
 58 
 59    atomic_add_subtract(); 
 60    atomic_bitwise(); 
 61 
-62    return 0; 
+62    return 0; 
 63} 
 64 
-65static void example_atomic_exit(void) 
+65static void example_atomic_exit(void) 
 66{ 
-67    pr_info("example_atomic exit\n"); 
+67    pr_info("example_atomic exit\n"); 
 68} 
 69 
 70module_init(example_atomic_init); 
 71module_exit(example_atomic_exit); 
 72 
-73MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Atomic operations example"); 
-74MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+73MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Atomic operations example"); 
+74MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
       Before the C11 standard adopts the built-in atomic types, the kernel already
+
       Before the C11 standard adopts the built-in atomic types, the kernel already
 provided a small set of atomic types by using a bunch of tricky architecture-specific
 codes. Implementing the atomic types by C11 atomics may allow the kernel to throw
 away the architecture-specific codes and letting the kernel code be more friendly to
@@ -4430,113 +4480,113 @@ For further details, see: 
    
      
  • Time to move to C11 atomics?
      
    • 
      
  • Atomic usage patterns in the kernel
    • 
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    13    Replacing Print Macros
    
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    13.1    Replacement
    
-
    In Section 2, I said that X Window System and kernel module programming do not
+
    In Section 2, I said that X Window System and kernel module programming do not
 mix. That is true for developing kernel modules. But in actual use, you want to be
 able to send messages to whichever tty the command to load the module came
 from.
-
       "tty" is an abbreviation of teletype: originally a combination keyboard-printer
+
       "tty" is an abbreviation of teletype: originally a combination keyboard-printer
 used to communicate with a Unix system, and today an abstraction for the text
 stream used for a Unix program, whether it is a physical terminal, an xterm on an X
 display, a network connection used with ssh, etc.
-
       The way this is done is by using current, a pointer to the currently running task,
+
       The way this is done is by using current, a pointer to the currently running task,
 to get the current task’s tty structure. Then, we look inside that tty structure to find
 a pointer to a string write function, which we use to write a string to the
 tty.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * print_string.c - Send output to the tty we're running on, regardless if 
-3 * it is through X11, telnet, etc.  We do this by printing the string to the 
-4 * tty associated with the current task. 
-5 */ 
-6#include <linux/init.h> 
-7#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-8#include <linux/module.h> 
-9#include <linux/sched.h> /* For current */ 
-10#include <linux/tty.h> /* For the tty declarations */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * print_string.c - Send output to the tty we're running on, regardless if 
+3 * it is through X11, telnet, etc.  We do this by printing the string to the 
+4 * tty associated with the current task. 
+5 */ 
+6#include <linux/init.h> 
+7#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+8#include <linux/module.h> 
+9#include <linux/sched.h> /* For current */ 
+10#include <linux/tty.h> /* For the tty declarations */ 
 11 
-12static void print_string(char *str) 
+12static void print_string(char *str) 
 13{ 
-14    /* The tty for the current task */ 
-15    struct tty_struct *my_tty = get_current_tty(); 
+14    /* The tty for the current task */ 
+15    struct tty_struct *my_tty = get_current_tty(); 
 16 
-17    /* If my_tty is NULL, the current task has no tty you can print to (i.e., 
-18     * if it is a daemon). If so, there is nothing we can do. 
-19     */ 
-20    if (my_tty) { 
-21        const struct tty_operations *ttyops = my_tty->driver->ops; 
-22        /* my_tty->driver is a struct which holds the tty's functions, 
-23         * one of which (write) is used to write strings to the tty. 
-24         * It can be used to take a string either from the user's or 
-25         * kernel's memory segment. 
-26         * 
-27         * The function's 1st parameter is the tty to write to, because the 
-28         * same function would normally be used for all tty's of a certain 
-29         * type. 
-30         * The 2nd parameter is a pointer to a string. 
-31         * The 3rd parameter is the length of the string. 
-32         * 
-33         * As you will see below, sometimes it's necessary to use 
-34         * preprocessor stuff to create code that works for different 
-35         * kernel versions. The (naive) approach we've taken here does not 
-36         * scale well. The right way to deal with this is described in 
-37         * section 2 of 
-38         * linux/Documentation/SubmittingPatches 
-39         */ 
-40        (ttyops->write)(my_tty, /* The tty itself */ 
-41                        str, /* String */ 
-42                        strlen(str)); /* Length */ 
+17    /* If my_tty is NULL, the current task has no tty you can print to (i.e., 
+18     * if it is a daemon). If so, there is nothing we can do. 
+19     */ 
+20    if (my_tty) { 
+21        const struct tty_operations *ttyops = my_tty->driver->ops; 
+22        /* my_tty->driver is a struct which holds the tty's functions, 
+23         * one of which (write) is used to write strings to the tty. 
+24         * It can be used to take a string either from the user's or 
+25         * kernel's memory segment. 
+26         * 
+27         * The function's 1st parameter is the tty to write to, because the 
+28         * same function would normally be used for all tty's of a certain 
+29         * type. 
+30         * The 2nd parameter is a pointer to a string. 
+31         * The 3rd parameter is the length of the string. 
+32         * 
+33         * As you will see below, sometimes it's necessary to use 
+34         * preprocessor stuff to create code that works for different 
+35         * kernel versions. The (naive) approach we've taken here does not 
+36         * scale well. The right way to deal with this is described in 
+37         * section 2 of 
+38         * linux/Documentation/SubmittingPatches 
+39         */ 
+40        (ttyops->write)(my_tty, /* The tty itself */ 
+41                        str, /* String */ 
+42                        strlen(str)); /* Length */ 
 43 
-44        /* ttys were originally hardware devices, which (usually) strictly 
-45         * followed the ASCII standard. In ASCII, to move to a new line you 
-46         * need two characters, a carriage return and a line feed. On Unix, 
-47         * the ASCII line feed is used for both purposes - so we can not 
-48         * just use \n, because it would not have a carriage return and the 
-49         * next line will start at the column right after the line feed. 
-50         * 
-51         * This is why text files are different between Unix and MS Windows. 
-52         * In CP/M and derivatives, like MS-DOS and MS Windows, the ASCII 
-53         * standard was strictly adhered to, and therefore a newline requires 
-54         * both a LF and a CR. 
-55         */ 
-56        (ttyops->write)(my_tty, "\015\012", 2); 
+44        /* ttys were originally hardware devices, which (usually) strictly 
+45         * followed the ASCII standard. In ASCII, to move to a new line you 
+46         * need two characters, a carriage return and a line feed. On Unix, 
+47         * the ASCII line feed is used for both purposes - so we can not 
+48         * just use \n, because it would not have a carriage return and the 
+49         * next line will start at the column right after the line feed. 
+50         * 
+51         * This is why text files are different between Unix and MS Windows. 
+52         * In CP/M and derivatives, like MS-DOS and MS Windows, the ASCII 
+53         * standard was strictly adhered to, and therefore a newline requires 
+54         * both a LF and a CR. 
+55         */ 
+56        (ttyops->write)(my_tty, "\015\012", 2); 
 57    } 
 58} 
 59 
-60static int __init print_string_init(void) 
+60static int __init print_string_init(void) 
 61{ 
-62    print_string("The module has been inserted.  Hello world!"); 
-63    return 0; 
+62    print_string("The module has been inserted.  Hello world!"); 
+63    return 0; 
 64} 
 65 
-66static void __exit print_string_exit(void) 
+66static void __exit print_string_exit(void) 
 67{ 
-68    print_string("The module has been removed.  Farewell world!"); 
+68    print_string("The module has been removed.  Farewell world!"); 
 69} 
 70 
 71module_init(print_string_init); 
 72module_exit(print_string_exit); 
 73 
-74MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+74MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    13.2    Flashing keyboard LEDs
    
-
    In certain conditions, you may desire a simpler and more direct way to communicate
+
    In certain conditions, you may desire a simpler and more direct way to communicate
 to the external world. Flashing keyboard LEDs can be such a solution: It is an
 immediate way to attract attention or to display a status condition. Keyboard LEDs
 are present on every hardware, they are always visible, they do not need any setup,
 and their use is rather simple and non-intrusive, compared to writing to a tty or a
 file.
-
       From v4.14 to v4.15, the timer API made a series of changes
+
       From v4.14 to v4.15, the timer API made a series of changes
 to improve memory safety. A buffer overflow in the area of a
  timer_list
  structure may be able to overwrite the
@@ -4544,37 +4594,37 @@ to improve memory safety. A buffer overflow in the area of a
  and   data
  fields, providing the attacker with a way to use return-object programming (ROP)
 to call arbitrary functions within the kernel. Also, the function prototype of the callback,
-containing a   unsigned long
+containing a   unsigned long
  argument, will prevent work from any type checking. Furthermore, the function prototype
-with   unsigned long
+with   unsigned long
  argument may be an obstacle to the control-flow integrity. Thus, it is better
 to use a unique prototype to separate from the cluster that takes an
- unsigned long
+ unsigned long
  argument. The timer callback should be passed a pointer to the
  timer_list
- structure rather than an   unsigned long
+ structure rather than an   unsigned long
  argument. Then, it wraps all the information the callback needs, including the
  timer_list
  structure, into a larger structure, and it can use the
  container_of
- macro instead of the   unsigned long
+ macro instead of the   unsigned long
  value.
-
       Before Linux v4.14,   setup_timer
+
       Before Linux v4.14,   setup_timer
  was used to initialize the timer and the
  timer_list
  structure looked like: 
 
    
-   
    1struct timer_list { 
-2    unsigned long expires; 
-3    void (*function)(unsigned long); 
-4    unsigned long data; 
+   
    1struct timer_list { 
+2    unsigned long expires; 
+3    void (*function)(unsigned long); 
+4    unsigned long data; 
 5    u32 flags; 
-6    /* ... */ 
+6    /* ... */ 
 7}; 
 8 
-9void setup_timer(struct timer_list *timer, void (*callback)(unsigned long), 
-10                 unsigned long data);
    
-
       Since Linux v4.14,   timer_setup
+9void setup_timer(struct timer_list *timer, void (*callback)(unsigned long), 
+10                 unsigned long data);
    
+
       Since Linux v4.14,   timer_setup
  is adopted and the kernel step by step converting to
  timer_setup
  from   setup_timer
@@ -4586,63 +4636,63 @@ Moreover, the   timer_setup
  was implemented by   setup_timer
  at first. 
 
    
-   
    1void timer_setup(struct timer_list *timer, 
-2                 void (*callback)(struct timer_list *), unsigned int flags);
    
-
       The   setup_timer
+   
    1void timer_setup(struct timer_list *timer, 
+2                 void (*callback)(struct timer_list *), unsigned int flags);
    
+
       The   setup_timer
  was then removed since v4.15. As a result, the
  timer_list
  structure had changed to the following. 
 
    
-   
    1struct timer_list { 
-2    unsigned long expires; 
-3    void (*function)(struct timer_list *); 
+   
    1struct timer_list { 
+2    unsigned long expires; 
+3    void (*function)(struct timer_list *); 
 4    u32 flags; 
-5    /* ... */ 
+5    /* ... */ 
 6};
    
-
       The following source code illustrates a minimal kernel module which, when
+
       The following source code illustrates a minimal kernel module which, when
 loaded, starts blinking the keyboard LEDs until it is unloaded.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * kbleds.c - Blink keyboard leds until the module is unloaded. 
-3 */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * kbleds.c - Blink keyboard leds until the module is unloaded. 
+3 */ 
 4 
-5#include <linux/init.h> 
-6#include <linux/kd.h> /* For KDSETLED */ 
-7#include <linux/module.h> 
-8#include <linux/tty.h> /* For tty_struct */ 
-9#include <linux/vt.h> /* For MAX_NR_CONSOLES */ 
-10#include <linux/vt_kern.h> /* for fg_console */ 
-11#include <linux/console_struct.h> /* For vc_cons */ 
+5#include <linux/init.h> 
+6#include <linux/kd.h> /* For KDSETLED */ 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
+8#include <linux/tty.h> /* For tty_struct */ 
+9#include <linux/vt.h> /* For MAX_NR_CONSOLES */ 
+10#include <linux/vt_kern.h> /* for fg_console */ 
+11#include <linux/console_struct.h> /* For vc_cons */ 
 12 
-13MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Example module illustrating the use of Keyboard LEDs."); 
+13MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Example module illustrating the use of Keyboard LEDs."); 
 14 
-15static struct timer_list my_timer; 
-16static struct tty_driver *my_driver; 
-17static unsigned long kbledstatus = 0; 
+15static struct timer_list my_timer; 
+16static struct tty_driver *my_driver; 
+17static unsigned long kbledstatus = 0; 
 18 
-19#define BLINK_DELAY HZ / 5 
-20#define ALL_LEDS_ON 0x07 
-21#define RESTORE_LEDS 0xFF 
+19#define BLINK_DELAY HZ / 5 
+20#define ALL_LEDS_ON 0x07 
+21#define RESTORE_LEDS 0xFF 
 22 
-23/* Function my_timer_func blinks the keyboard LEDs periodically by invoking 
-24 * command KDSETLED of ioctl() on the keyboard driver. To learn more on virtual 
-25 * terminal ioctl operations, please see file: 
-26 *   drivers/tty/vt/vt_ioctl.c, function vt_ioctl(). 
-27 * 
-28 * The argument to KDSETLED is alternatively set to 7 (thus causing the led 
-29 * mode to be set to LED_SHOW_IOCTL, and all the leds are lit) and to 0xFF 
-30 * (any value above 7 switches back the led mode to LED_SHOW_FLAGS, thus 
-31 * the LEDs reflect the actual keyboard status).  To learn more on this, 
-32 * please see file: drivers/tty/vt/keyboard.c, function setledstate(). 
-33 */ 
-34static void my_timer_func(struct timer_list *unused) 
+23/* Function my_timer_func blinks the keyboard LEDs periodically by invoking 
+24 * command KDSETLED of ioctl() on the keyboard driver. To learn more on virtual 
+25 * terminal ioctl operations, please see file: 
+26 *   drivers/tty/vt/vt_ioctl.c, function vt_ioctl(). 
+27 * 
+28 * The argument to KDSETLED is alternatively set to 7 (thus causing the led 
+29 * mode to be set to LED_SHOW_IOCTL, and all the leds are lit) and to 0xFF 
+30 * (any value above 7 switches back the led mode to LED_SHOW_FLAGS, thus 
+31 * the LEDs reflect the actual keyboard status).  To learn more on this, 
+32 * please see file: drivers/tty/vt/keyboard.c, function setledstate(). 
+33 */ 
+34static void my_timer_func(struct timer_list *unused) 
 35{ 
-36    struct tty_struct *t = vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty; 
+36    struct tty_struct *t = vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty; 
 37 
-38    if (kbledstatus == ALL_LEDS_ON) 
+38    if (kbledstatus == ALL_LEDS_ON) 
 39        kbledstatus = RESTORE_LEDS; 
-40    else 
+40    else 
 41        kbledstatus = ALL_LEDS_ON; 
 42 
 43    (my_driver->ops->ioctl)(t, KDSETLED, kbledstatus); 
@@ -4651,34 +4701,34 @@ loaded, starts blinking the keyboard LEDs until it is unloaded.
 46    add_timer(&my_timer); 
 47} 
 48 
-49static int __init kbleds_init(void) 
+49static int __init kbleds_init(void) 
 50{ 
-51    int i; 
+51    int i; 
 52 
-53    pr_info("kbleds: loading\n"); 
-54    pr_info("kbleds: fgconsole is %x\n", fg_console); 
-55    for (i = 0; i < MAX_NR_CONSOLES; i++) { 
-56        if (!vc_cons[i].d) 
-57            break; 
-58        pr_info("poet_atkm: console[%i/%i] #%i, tty %p\n", i, MAX_NR_CONSOLES, 
-59                vc_cons[i].d->vc_num, (void *)vc_cons[i].d->port.tty); 
+53    pr_info("kbleds: loading\n"); 
+54    pr_info("kbleds: fgconsole is %x\n", fg_console); 
+55    for (i = 0; i < MAX_NR_CONSOLES; i++) { 
+56        if (!vc_cons[i].d) 
+57            break; 
+58        pr_info("poet_atkm: console[%i/%i] #%i, tty %p\n", i, MAX_NR_CONSOLES, 
+59                vc_cons[i].d->vc_num, (void *)vc_cons[i].d->port.tty); 
 60    } 
-61    pr_info("kbleds: finished scanning consoles\n"); 
+61    pr_info("kbleds: finished scanning consoles\n"); 
 62 
 63    my_driver = vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty->driver; 
-64    pr_info("kbleds: tty driver magic %x\n", my_driver->magic); 
+64    pr_info("kbleds: tty driver magic %x\n", my_driver->magic); 
 65 
-66    /* Set up the LED blink timer the first time. */ 
+66    /* Set up the LED blink timer the first time. */ 
 67    timer_setup(&my_timer, my_timer_func, 0); 
 68    my_timer.expires = jiffies + BLINK_DELAY; 
 69    add_timer(&my_timer); 
 70 
-71    return 0; 
+71    return 0; 
 72} 
 73 
-74static void __exit kbleds_cleanup(void) 
+74static void __exit kbleds_cleanup(void) 
 75{ 
-76    pr_info("kbleds: unloading...\n"); 
+76    pr_info("kbleds: unloading...\n"); 
 77    del_timer(&my_timer); 
 78    (my_driver->ops->ioctl)(vc_cons[fg_console].d->port.tty, KDSETLED, 
 79                            RESTORE_LEDS); 
@@ -4687,8 +4737,8 @@ loaded, starts blinking the keyboard LEDs until it is unloaded.
 82module_init(kbleds_init); 
 83module_exit(kbleds_cleanup); 
 84 
-85MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
       If none of the examples in this chapter fit your debugging needs,
+85MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
       If none of the examples in this chapter fit your debugging needs,
 there might yet be some other tricks to try. Ever wondered what
  CONFIG_LL_DEBUG
  in   make menuconfig
@@ -4699,76 +4749,76 @@ everything what your code does over a serial line. If you find yourself porting
 kernel to some new and former unsupported architecture, this is usually amongst the
 first things that should be implemented. Logging over a netconsole might also be
 worth a try.
-
       While you have seen lots of stuff that can be used to aid debugging here, there are
+
       While you have seen lots of stuff that can be used to aid debugging here, there are
 some things to be aware of. Debugging is almost always intrusive. Adding debug code
 can change the situation enough to make the bug seem to disappear. Thus, you
 should keep debug code to a minimum and make sure it does not show up in
 production code.
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    14    Scheduling Tasks
    
-
    There are two main ways of running tasks: tasklets and work queues. Tasklets are a
+
    There are two main ways of running tasks: tasklets and work queues. Tasklets are a
 quick and easy way of scheduling a single function to be run. For example, when
 triggered from an interrupt, whereas work queues are more complicated but also
 better suited to running multiple things in a sequence.
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    14.1    Tasklets
    
-
    Here is an example tasklet module. The
+
    Here is an example tasklet module. The
  tasklet_fn
  function runs for a few seconds and in the mean time execution of the
  example_tasklet_init
  function continues to the exit point.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * example_tasklet.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/delay.h> 
-5#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-7#include <linux/module.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * example_tasklet.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/delay.h> 
+5#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+6#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
 8 
-9/* Macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists for compatibility. 
-10 * See https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/ 
-11 */ 
-12#ifndef DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD 
-13#define DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(arg1, arg2) DECLARE_TASKLET(arg1, arg2, 0L) 
-14#endif 
+9/* Macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists for compatibility. 
+10 * See https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/ 
+11 */ 
+12#ifndef DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD 
+13#define DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(arg1, arg2) DECLARE_TASKLET(arg1, arg2, 0L) 
+14#endif 
 15 
-16static void tasklet_fn(unsigned long data) 
+16static void tasklet_fn(unsigned long data) 
 17{ 
-18    pr_info("Example tasklet starts\n"); 
+18    pr_info("Example tasklet starts\n"); 
 19    mdelay(5000); 
-20    pr_info("Example tasklet ends\n"); 
+20    pr_info("Example tasklet ends\n"); 
 21} 
 22 
-23static DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(mytask, tasklet_fn); 
+23static DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(mytask, tasklet_fn); 
 24 
-25static int example_tasklet_init(void) 
+25static int example_tasklet_init(void) 
 26{ 
-27    pr_info("tasklet example init\n"); 
+27    pr_info("tasklet example init\n"); 
 28    tasklet_schedule(&mytask); 
 29    mdelay(200); 
-30    pr_info("Example tasklet init continues...\n"); 
-31    return 0; 
+30    pr_info("Example tasklet init continues...\n"); 
+31    return 0; 
 32} 
 33 
-34static void example_tasklet_exit(void) 
+34static void example_tasklet_exit(void) 
 35{ 
-36    pr_info("tasklet example exit\n"); 
+36    pr_info("tasklet example exit\n"); 
 37    tasklet_kill(&mytask); 
 38} 
 39 
 40module_init(example_tasklet_init); 
 41module_exit(example_tasklet_exit); 
 42 
-43MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Tasklet example"); 
-44MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
       So with this example loaded   dmesg
+43MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Tasklet example"); 
+44MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
       So with this example loaded   dmesg
  should show:
                                                                   
 
@@ -4780,50 +4830,50 @@ Example tasklet starts
 Example tasklet init continues...
 Example tasklet ends
 
    
-
    Although tasklet is easy to use, it comes with several defators, and developers are
+
    Although tasklet is easy to use, it comes with several defators, and developers are
 discussing about getting rid of tasklet in linux kernel. The tasklet callback
 runs in atomic context, inside a software interrupt, meaning that it cannot
 sleep or access user-space data, so not all work can be done in a tasklet
 handler. Also, the kernel only allows one instance of any given tasklet to be
 running at any given time; multiple different tasklet callbacks can run in
 parallel.
-
       In recent kernels, tasklets can be replaced by workqueues, timers, or threaded
+
       In recent kernels, tasklets can be replaced by workqueues, timers, or threaded
 interrupts.1
 While the removal of tasklets remains a longer-term goal, the current kernel contains more
 than a hundred uses of tasklets. Now developers are proceeding with the API changes and
 the macro   DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD
  exists for compatibility. For further information, see https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/.
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    14.2    Work queues
    
-
    To add a task to the scheduler we can use a workqueue. The kernel then uses the
+
    To add a task to the scheduler we can use a workqueue. The kernel then uses the
 Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS) to execute work within the queue.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * sched.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/init.h> 
-5#include <linux/module.h> 
-6#include <linux/workqueue.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * sched.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/init.h> 
+5#include <linux/module.h> 
+6#include <linux/workqueue.h> 
 7 
-8static struct workqueue_struct *queue = NULL; 
-9static struct work_struct work; 
+8static struct workqueue_struct *queue = NULL; 
+9static struct work_struct work; 
 10 
-11static void work_handler(struct work_struct *data) 
+11static void work_handler(struct work_struct *data) 
 12{ 
-13    pr_info("work handler function.\n"); 
+13    pr_info("work handler function.\n"); 
 14} 
 15 
-16static int __init sched_init(void) 
+16static int __init sched_init(void) 
 17{ 
-18    queue = alloc_workqueue("HELLOWORLD", WQ_UNBOUND, 1); 
+18    queue = alloc_workqueue("HELLOWORLD", WQ_UNBOUND, 1); 
 19    INIT_WORK(&work, work_handler); 
 20    schedule_work(&work); 
-21    return 0; 
+21    return 0; 
 22} 
 23 
-24static void __exit sched_exit(void) 
+24static void __exit sched_exit(void) 
 25{ 
 26    destroy_workqueue(queue); 
 27} 
@@ -4831,38 +4881,38 @@ Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS) to execute work within the queue.
 29module_init(sched_init); 
 30module_exit(sched_exit); 
 31 
-32MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-33MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Workqueue example");
    
-
    
+32MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+33MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Workqueue example");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    15    Interrupt Handlers
    
-
    
+
    
 
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
    
    15.1    Interrupt Handlers
    
-
    Except for the last chapter, everything we did in the kernel so far we have done as a
+
    Except for the last chapter, everything we did in the kernel so far we have done as a
 response to a process asking for it, either by dealing with a special file, sending an
  ioctl()
 , or issuing a system call. But the job of the kernel is not just to respond to process
 requests. Another job, which is every bit as important, is to speak to the hardware
 connected to the machine.
-
       There are two types of interaction between the CPU and the rest of the
+
       There are two types of interaction between the CPU and the rest of the
 computer’s hardware. The first type is when the CPU gives orders to the hardware,
 the order is when the hardware needs to tell the CPU something. The second, called
 interrupts, is much harder to implement because it has to be dealt with when
 convenient for the hardware, not the CPU. Hardware devices typically have a very
 small amount of RAM, and if you do not read their information when available, it is
 lost.
-
       Under Linux, hardware interrupts are called IRQ’s (Interrupt ReQuests). There
+
       Under Linux, hardware interrupts are called IRQ’s (Interrupt ReQuests). There
 are two types of IRQ’s, short and long. A short IRQ is one which is expected to take
 a very short period of time, during which the rest of the machine will be blocked and
 no other interrupts will be handled. A long IRQ is one which can take longer, and
 during which other interrupts may occur (but not interrupts from the same
 device). If at all possible, it is better to declare an interrupt handler to be
 long.
-
       When the CPU receives an interrupt, it stops whatever it is doing (unless it is
+
       When the CPU receives an interrupt, it stops whatever it is doing (unless it is
 processing a more important interrupt, in which case it will deal with this one only
 when the more important one is done), saves certain parameters on the stack and
 calls the interrupt handler. This means that certain things are not allowed in the
@@ -4874,10 +4924,10 @@ heavy work deferred from an interrupt handler. Historically, BH (Linux
 naming for Bottom Halves) statistically book-keeps the deferred functions.
 Softirq and its higher level abstraction, Tasklet, replace BH since Linux
 2.3.
-
       The way to implement this is to call
+
       The way to implement this is to call
  request_irq()
  to get your interrupt handler called when the relevant IRQ is received.
-
       In practice IRQ handling can be a bit more complex. Hardware is often
+
       In practice IRQ handling can be a bit more complex. Hardware is often
 designed in a way that chains two interrupt controllers, so that all the IRQs
 from interrupt controller B are cascaded to a certain IRQ from interrupt
 controller A. Of course, that requires that the kernel finds out which IRQ it
@@ -4894,7 +4944,7 @@ need to solve another truckload of problems. It is not enough to know if a
 certain IRQs has happened, it’s also important to know what CPU(s) it was
 for. People still interested in more details, might want to refer to "APIC"
 now.
-
       This function receives the IRQ number, the name of the function,
+
       This function receives the IRQ number, the name of the function,
 flags, a name for /proc/interrupts and a parameter to be passed to the
 interrupt handler. Usually there is a certain number of IRQs available.
 How many IRQs there are is hardware-dependent. The flags can include
@@ -4904,128 +4954,128 @@ How many IRQs there are is hardware-dependent. The flags can include
  SA_INTERRUPT
  to indicate this is a fast interrupt. This function will only succeed if there is not
 already a handler on this IRQ, or if you are both willing to share.
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    15.2    Detecting button presses
    
-
    Many popular single board computers, such as Raspberry Pi or Beagleboards, have a
+
    Many popular single board computers, such as Raspberry Pi or Beagleboards, have a
 bunch of GPIO pins. Attaching buttons to those and then having a button press do
 something is a classic case in which you might need to use interrupts, so that instead
 of having the CPU waste time and battery power polling for a change in input state,
 it is better for the input to trigger the CPU to then run a particular handling
 function.
-
       Here is an example where buttons are connected to GPIO numbers 17 and 18 and
+
       Here is an example where buttons are connected to GPIO numbers 17 and 18 and
 an LED is connected to GPIO 4. You can change those numbers to whatever is
 appropriate for your board.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * intrpt.c - Handling GPIO with interrupts 
-3 * 
-4 * Based upon the RPi example by Stefan Wendler (devnull@kaltpost.de) 
-5 * from: 
-6 *   https://github.com/wendlers/rpi-kmod-samples 
-7 * 
-8 * Press one button to turn on a LED and another to turn it off. 
-9 */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * intrpt.c - Handling GPIO with interrupts 
+3 * 
+4 * Based upon the RPi example by Stefan Wendler (devnull@kaltpost.de) 
+5 * from: 
+6 *   https://github.com/wendlers/rpi-kmod-samples 
+7 * 
+8 * Press one button to turn on a LED and another to turn it off. 
+9 */ 
 10 
-11#include <linux/gpio.h> 
-12#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-13#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-14#include <linux/module.h> 
+11#include <linux/gpio.h> 
+12#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+13#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+14#include <linux/module.h> 
 15 
-16static int button_irqs[] = { -1, -1 }; 
+16static int button_irqs[] = { -1, -1 }; 
 17 
-18/* Define GPIOs for LEDs. 
-19 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
-20 */ 
-21static struct gpio leds[] = { { 4, GPIOF_OUT_INIT_LOW, "LED 1" } }; 
+18/* Define GPIOs for LEDs. 
+19 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
+20 */ 
+21static struct gpio leds[] = { { 4, GPIOF_OUT_INIT_LOW, "LED 1" } }; 
 22 
-23/* Define GPIOs for BUTTONS 
-24 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
-25 */ 
-26static struct gpio buttons[] = { { 17, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 ON BUTTON" }, 
-27                                 { 18, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 OFF BUTTON" } }; 
+23/* Define GPIOs for BUTTONS 
+24 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
+25 */ 
+26static struct gpio buttons[] = { { 17, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 ON BUTTON" }, 
+27                                 { 18, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 OFF BUTTON" } }; 
 28 
-29/* interrupt function triggered when a button is pressed. */ 
-30static irqreturn_t button_isr(int irq, void *data) 
+29/* interrupt function triggered when a button is pressed. */ 
+30static irqreturn_t button_isr(int irq, void *data) 
 31{ 
-32    /* first button */ 
-33    if (irq == button_irqs[0] && !gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
+32    /* first button */ 
+33    if (irq == button_irqs[0] && !gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
 34        gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 1); 
-35    /* second button */ 
-36    else if (irq == button_irqs[1] && gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
+35    /* second button */ 
+36    else if (irq == button_irqs[1] && gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
 37        gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 0); 
 38 
-39    return IRQ_HANDLED; 
+39    return IRQ_HANDLED; 
 40} 
 41 
-42static int __init intrpt_init(void) 
+42static int __init intrpt_init(void) 
 43{ 
-44    int ret = 0; 
+44    int ret = 0; 
 45 
-46    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
+46    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
 47 
-48    /* register LED gpios */ 
+48    /* register LED gpios */ 
 49    ret = gpio_request_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 50 
-51    if (ret) { 
-52        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for LEDs: %d\n", ret); 
-53        return ret; 
+51    if (ret) { 
+52        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for LEDs: %d\n", ret); 
+53        return ret; 
 54    } 
 55 
-56    /* register BUTTON gpios */ 
+56    /* register BUTTON gpios */ 
 57    ret = gpio_request_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons)); 
 58 
-59    if (ret) { 
-60        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for BUTTONs: %d\n", ret); 
-61        goto fail1; 
+59    if (ret) { 
+60        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for BUTTONs: %d\n", ret); 
+61        goto fail1; 
 62    } 
 63 
-64    pr_info("Current button1 value: %d\n", gpio_get_value(buttons[0].gpio)); 
+64    pr_info("Current button1 value: %d\n", gpio_get_value(buttons[0].gpio)); 
 65 
 66    ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[0].gpio); 
 67 
-68    if (ret < 0) { 
-69        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-70        goto fail2; 
+68    if (ret < 0) { 
+69        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+70        goto fail2; 
 71    } 
 72 
 73    button_irqs[0] = ret; 
 74 
-75    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON1 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[0]); 
+75    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON1 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[0]); 
 76 
 77    ret = request_irq(button_irqs[0], button_isr, 
 78                      IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING, 
-79                      "gpiomod#button1", NULL); 
+79                      "gpiomod#button1", NULL); 
 80 
-81    if (ret) { 
-82        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-83        goto fail2; 
+81    if (ret) { 
+82        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+83        goto fail2; 
 84    } 
 85 
 86    ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[1].gpio); 
 87 
-88    if (ret < 0) { 
-89        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-90        goto fail2; 
+88    if (ret < 0) { 
+89        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+90        goto fail2; 
 91    } 
 92 
 93    button_irqs[1] = ret; 
 94 
-95    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON2 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[1]); 
+95    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON2 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[1]); 
 96 
 97    ret = request_irq(button_irqs[1], button_isr, 
 98                      IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING, 
-99                      "gpiomod#button2", NULL); 
+99                      "gpiomod#button2", NULL); 
 100 
-101    if (ret) { 
-102        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-103        goto fail3; 
+101    if (ret) { 
+102        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+103        goto fail3; 
 104    } 
 105 
-106    return 0; 
+106    return 0; 
 107 
-108/* cleanup what has been setup so far */ 
+108/* cleanup what has been setup so far */ 
 109fail3: 
 110    free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL); 
 111 
@@ -5035,24 +5085,24 @@ appropriate for your board.
 115fail1: 
 116    gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 117 
-118    return ret; 
+118    return ret; 
 119} 
 120 
-121static void __exit intrpt_exit(void) 
+121static void __exit intrpt_exit(void) 
 122{ 
-123    int i; 
+123    int i; 
 124 
-125    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
+125    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
 126 
-127    /* free irqs */ 
+127    /* free irqs */ 
 128    free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL); 
 129    free_irq(button_irqs[1], NULL); 
 130 
-131    /* turn all LEDs off */ 
-132    for (i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE(leds); i++) 
+131    /* turn all LEDs off */ 
+132    for (i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE(leds); i++) 
 133        gpio_set_value(leds[i].gpio, 0); 
 134 
-135    /* unregister */ 
+135    /* unregister */ 
 136    gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 137    gpio_free_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons)); 
 138} 
@@ -5060,153 +5110,153 @@ appropriate for your board.
 140module_init(intrpt_init); 
 141module_exit(intrpt_exit); 
 142 
-143MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-144MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Handle some GPIO interrupts");
    
-
    
+143MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+144MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Handle some GPIO interrupts");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    15.3    Bottom Half
    
-
    Suppose you want to do a bunch of stuff inside of an interrupt routine. A common
+
    Suppose you want to do a bunch of stuff inside of an interrupt routine. A common
 way to do that without rendering the interrupt unavailable for a significant duration
 is to combine it with a tasklet. This pushes the bulk of the work off into the
 scheduler.
-
       The example below modifies the previous example to also run an additional task
+
       The example below modifies the previous example to also run an additional task
 when an interrupt is triggered.
 
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * bottomhalf.c - Top and bottom half interrupt handling 
-3 * 
-4 * Based upon the RPi example by Stefan Wendler (devnull@kaltpost.de) 
-5 * from: 
-6 *    https://github.com/wendlers/rpi-kmod-samples 
-7 * 
-8 * Press one button to turn on an LED and another to turn it off 
-9 */ 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * bottomhalf.c - Top and bottom half interrupt handling 
+3 * 
+4 * Based upon the RPi example by Stefan Wendler (devnull@kaltpost.de) 
+5 * from: 
+6 *    https://github.com/wendlers/rpi-kmod-samples 
+7 * 
+8 * Press one button to turn on an LED and another to turn it off 
+9 */ 
 10 
-11#include <linux/delay.h> 
-12#include <linux/gpio.h> 
-13#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
-14#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-15#include <linux/module.h> 
+11#include <linux/delay.h> 
+12#include <linux/gpio.h> 
+13#include <linux/interrupt.h> 
+14#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+15#include <linux/module.h> 
 16 
-17/* Macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists for compatibiity. 
-18 * See https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/ 
-19 */ 
-20#ifndef DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD 
-21#define DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(arg1, arg2) DECLARE_TASKLET(arg1, arg2, 0L) 
-22#endif 
+17/* Macro DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD exists for compatibiity. 
+18 * See https://lwn.net/Articles/830964/ 
+19 */ 
+20#ifndef DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD 
+21#define DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(arg1, arg2) DECLARE_TASKLET(arg1, arg2, 0L) 
+22#endif 
 23 
-24static int button_irqs[] = { -1, -1 }; 
+24static int button_irqs[] = { -1, -1 }; 
 25 
-26/* Define GPIOs for LEDs. 
-27 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
-28 */ 
-29static struct gpio leds[] = { { 4, GPIOF_OUT_INIT_LOW, "LED 1" } }; 
+26/* Define GPIOs for LEDs. 
+27 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
+28 */ 
+29static struct gpio leds[] = { { 4, GPIOF_OUT_INIT_LOW, "LED 1" } }; 
 30 
-31/* Define GPIOs for BUTTONS 
-32 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
-33 */ 
-34static struct gpio buttons[] = { 
-35    { 17, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 ON BUTTON" }, 
-36    { 18, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 OFF BUTTON" }, 
+31/* Define GPIOs for BUTTONS 
+32 * TODO: Change the numbers for the GPIO on your board. 
+33 */ 
+34static struct gpio buttons[] = { 
+35    { 17, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 ON BUTTON" }, 
+36    { 18, GPIOF_IN, "LED 1 OFF BUTTON" }, 
 37}; 
 38 
-39/* Tasklet containing some non-trivial amount of processing */ 
-40static void bottomhalf_tasklet_fn(unsigned long data) 
+39/* Tasklet containing some non-trivial amount of processing */ 
+40static void bottomhalf_tasklet_fn(unsigned long data) 
 41{ 
-42    pr_info("Bottom half tasklet starts\n"); 
-43    /* do something which takes a while */ 
+42    pr_info("Bottom half tasklet starts\n"); 
+43    /* do something which takes a while */ 
 44    mdelay(500); 
-45    pr_info("Bottom half tasklet ends\n"); 
+45    pr_info("Bottom half tasklet ends\n"); 
 46} 
 47 
-48static DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(buttontask, bottomhalf_tasklet_fn); 
+48static DECLARE_TASKLET_OLD(buttontask, bottomhalf_tasklet_fn); 
 49 
-50/* interrupt function triggered when a button is pressed */ 
-51static irqreturn_t button_isr(int irq, void *data) 
+50/* interrupt function triggered when a button is pressed */ 
+51static irqreturn_t button_isr(int irq, void *data) 
 52{ 
-53    /* Do something quickly right now */ 
-54    if (irq == button_irqs[0] && !gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
+53    /* Do something quickly right now */ 
+54    if (irq == button_irqs[0] && !gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
 55        gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 1); 
-56    else if (irq == button_irqs[1] && gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
+56    else if (irq == button_irqs[1] && gpio_get_value(leds[0].gpio)) 
 57        gpio_set_value(leds[0].gpio, 0); 
 58 
-59    /* Do the rest at leisure via the scheduler */ 
+59    /* Do the rest at leisure via the scheduler */ 
 60    tasklet_schedule(&buttontask); 
 61 
-62    return IRQ_HANDLED; 
+62    return IRQ_HANDLED; 
 63} 
 64 
-65static int __init bottomhalf_init(void) 
+65static int __init bottomhalf_init(void) 
 66{ 
-67    int ret = 0; 
+67    int ret = 0; 
 68 
-69    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
+69    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
 70 
-71    /* register LED gpios */ 
+71    /* register LED gpios */ 
 72    ret = gpio_request_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 73 
-74    if (ret) { 
-75        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for LEDs: %d\n", ret); 
-76        return ret; 
+74    if (ret) { 
+75        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for LEDs: %d\n", ret); 
+76        return ret; 
 77    } 
 78 
-79    /* register BUTTON gpios */ 
+79    /* register BUTTON gpios */ 
 80    ret = gpio_request_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons)); 
 81 
-82    if (ret) { 
-83        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for BUTTONs: %d\n", ret); 
-84        goto fail1; 
+82    if (ret) { 
+83        pr_err("Unable to request GPIOs for BUTTONs: %d\n", ret); 
+84        goto fail1; 
 85    } 
 86 
-87    pr_info("Current button1 value: %d\n", gpio_get_value(buttons[0].gpio)); 
+87    pr_info("Current button1 value: %d\n", gpio_get_value(buttons[0].gpio)); 
 88 
 89    ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[0].gpio); 
 90 
-91    if (ret < 0) { 
-92        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-93        goto fail2; 
+91    if (ret < 0) { 
+92        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+93        goto fail2; 
 94    } 
 95 
 96    button_irqs[0] = ret; 
 97 
-98    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON1 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[0]); 
+98    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON1 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[0]); 
 99 
 100    ret = request_irq(button_irqs[0], button_isr, 
 101                      IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING, 
-102                      "gpiomod#button1", NULL); 
+102                      "gpiomod#button1", NULL); 
 103 
-104    if (ret) { 
-105        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-106        goto fail2; 
+104    if (ret) { 
+105        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+106        goto fail2; 
 107    } 
 108 
 109    ret = gpio_to_irq(buttons[1].gpio); 
 110 
-111    if (ret < 0) { 
-112        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-113        goto fail2; 
+111    if (ret < 0) { 
+112        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+113        goto fail2; 
 114    } 
 115 
 116    button_irqs[1] = ret; 
 117 
-118    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON2 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[1]); 
+118    pr_info("Successfully requested BUTTON2 IRQ # %d\n", button_irqs[1]); 
 119 
 120    ret = request_irq(button_irqs[1], button_isr, 
 121                      IRQF_TRIGGER_RISING | IRQF_TRIGGER_FALLING, 
-122                      "gpiomod#button2", NULL); 
+122                      "gpiomod#button2", NULL); 
 123 
-124    if (ret) { 
-125        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
-126        goto fail3; 
+124    if (ret) { 
+125        pr_err("Unable to request IRQ: %d\n", ret); 
+126        goto fail3; 
 127    } 
 128 
-129    return 0; 
+129    return 0; 
 130 
-131/* cleanup what has been setup so far */ 
+131/* cleanup what has been setup so far */ 
 132fail3: 
 133    free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL); 
 134 
@@ -5216,24 +5266,24 @@ when an interrupt is triggered.
 138fail1: 
 139    gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 140 
-141    return ret; 
+141    return ret; 
 142} 
 143 
-144static void __exit bottomhalf_exit(void) 
+144static void __exit bottomhalf_exit(void) 
 145{ 
-146    int i; 
+146    int i; 
 147 
-148    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
+148    pr_info("%s\n", __func__); 
 149 
-150    /* free irqs */ 
+150    /* free irqs */ 
 151    free_irq(button_irqs[0], NULL); 
 152    free_irq(button_irqs[1], NULL); 
 153 
-154    /* turn all LEDs off */ 
-155    for (i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE(leds); i++) 
+154    /* turn all LEDs off */ 
+155    for (i = 0; i < ARRAY_SIZE(leds); i++) 
 156        gpio_set_value(leds[i].gpio, 0); 
 157 
-158    /* unregister */ 
+158    /* unregister */ 
 159    gpio_free_array(leds, ARRAY_SIZE(leds)); 
 160    gpio_free_array(buttons, ARRAY_SIZE(buttons)); 
 161} 
@@ -5241,285 +5291,285 @@ when an interrupt is triggered.
 163module_init(bottomhalf_init); 
 164module_exit(bottomhalf_exit); 
 165 
-166MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-167MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Interrupt with top and bottom half");
    
-
    
+166MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+167MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Interrupt with top and bottom half");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    16    Crypto
    
-
    At the dawn of the internet, everybody trusted everybody completely…but that did
+
    At the dawn of the internet, everybody trusted everybody completely…but that did
 not work out so well. When this guide was originally written, it was a more innocent
 era in which almost nobody actually gave a damn about crypto - least of all kernel
 developers. That is certainly no longer the case now. To handle crypto stuff, the
 kernel has its own API enabling common methods of encryption, decryption and your
 favourite hash functions.
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    16.1    Hash functions
    
-
    Calculating and checking the hashes of things is a common operation. Here is a
+
    Calculating and checking the hashes of things is a common operation. Here is a
 demonstration of how to calculate a sha256 hash within a kernel module.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * cryptosha256.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <crypto/internal/hash.h> 
-5#include <linux/module.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * cryptosha256.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <crypto/internal/hash.h> 
+5#include <linux/module.h> 
 6 
-7#define SHA256_LENGTH 32 
+7#define SHA256_LENGTH 32 
 8 
-9static void show_hash_result(char *plaintext, char *hash_sha256) 
+9static void show_hash_result(char *plaintext, char *hash_sha256) 
 10{ 
-11    int i; 
-12    char str[SHA256_LENGTH * 2 + 1]; 
+11    int i; 
+12    char str[SHA256_LENGTH * 2 + 1]; 
 13 
-14    pr_info("sha256 test for string: \"%s\"\n", plaintext); 
-15    for (i = 0; i < SHA256_LENGTH; i++) 
-16        sprintf(&str[i * 2], "%02x", (unsigned char)hash_sha256[i]); 
+14    pr_info("sha256 test for string: \"%s\"\n", plaintext); 
+15    for (i = 0; i < SHA256_LENGTH; i++) 
+16        sprintf(&str[i * 2], "%02x", (unsigned char)hash_sha256[i]); 
 17    str[i * 2] = 0; 
-18    pr_info("%s\n", str); 
+18    pr_info("%s\n", str); 
 19} 
 20 
-21static int cryptosha256_init(void) 
+21static int cryptosha256_init(void) 
 22{ 
-23    char *plaintext = "This is a test"; 
-24    char hash_sha256[SHA256_LENGTH]; 
-25    struct crypto_shash *sha256; 
-26    struct shash_desc *shash; 
+23    char *plaintext = "This is a test"; 
+24    char hash_sha256[SHA256_LENGTH]; 
+25    struct crypto_shash *sha256; 
+26    struct shash_desc *shash; 
 27 
-28    sha256 = crypto_alloc_shash("sha256", 0, 0); 
-29    if (IS_ERR(sha256)) 
-30        return -1; 
+28    sha256 = crypto_alloc_shash("sha256", 0, 0); 
+29    if (IS_ERR(sha256)) 
+30        return -1; 
 31 
-32    shash = kmalloc(sizeof(struct shash_desc) + crypto_shash_descsize(sha256), 
+32    shash = kmalloc(sizeof(struct shash_desc) + crypto_shash_descsize(sha256), 
 33                    GFP_KERNEL); 
-34    if (!shash) 
-35        return -ENOMEM; 
+34    if (!shash) 
+35        return -ENOMEM; 
 36 
 37    shash->tfm = sha256; 
 38 
-39    if (crypto_shash_init(shash)) 
-40        return -1; 
+39    if (crypto_shash_init(shash)) 
+40        return -1; 
 41 
-42    if (crypto_shash_update(shash, plaintext, strlen(plaintext))) 
-43        return -1; 
+42    if (crypto_shash_update(shash, plaintext, strlen(plaintext))) 
+43        return -1; 
 44 
-45    if (crypto_shash_final(shash, hash_sha256)) 
-46        return -1; 
+45    if (crypto_shash_final(shash, hash_sha256)) 
+46        return -1; 
 47 
 48    kfree(shash); 
 49    crypto_free_shash(sha256); 
 50 
 51    show_hash_result(plaintext, hash_sha256); 
 52 
-53    return 0; 
+53    return 0; 
 54} 
 55 
-56static void cryptosha256_exit(void) 
+56static void cryptosha256_exit(void) 
 57{ 
 58} 
 59 
 60module_init(cryptosha256_init); 
 61module_exit(cryptosha256_exit); 
 62 
-63MODULE_DESCRIPTION("sha256 hash test"); 
-64MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
       Install the module:
+63MODULE_DESCRIPTION("sha256 hash test"); 
+64MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
       Install the module:
 
    
 
    
-   
    1sudo insmod cryptosha256.ko 
+   
    1sudo insmod cryptosha256.ko 
 2sudo dmesg
    
-
       And you should see that the hash was calculated for the test string.
-
       Finally, remove the test module:
+
       And you should see that the hash was calculated for the test string.
+
       Finally, remove the test module:
 
    
 
    
-   
    1sudo rmmod cryptosha256
    
-
    
+   
    1sudo rmmod cryptosha256
    
+
    
 
    
    
    16.2    Symmetric key encryption
    
-
    Here is an example of symmetrically encrypting a string using the AES algorithm
+
    Here is an example of symmetrically encrypting a string using the AES algorithm
 and a password.
 
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * cryptosk.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <crypto/internal/skcipher.h> 
-5#include <linux/crypto.h> 
-6#include <linux/module.h> 
-7#include <linux/random.h> 
-8#include <linux/scatterlist.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * cryptosk.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <crypto/internal/skcipher.h> 
+5#include <linux/crypto.h> 
+6#include <linux/module.h> 
+7#include <linux/random.h> 
+8#include <linux/scatterlist.h> 
 9 
-10#define SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH 32 
-11#define CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE 16 
+10#define SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH 32 
+11#define CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE 16 
 12 
-13struct tcrypt_result { 
-14    struct completion completion; 
-15    int err; 
+13struct tcrypt_result { 
+14    struct completion completion; 
+15    int err; 
 16}; 
 17 
-18struct skcipher_def { 
-19    struct scatterlist sg; 
-20    struct crypto_skcipher *tfm; 
-21    struct skcipher_request *req; 
-22    struct tcrypt_result result; 
-23    char *scratchpad; 
-24    char *ciphertext; 
-25    char *ivdata; 
+18struct skcipher_def { 
+19    struct scatterlist sg; 
+20    struct crypto_skcipher *tfm; 
+21    struct skcipher_request *req; 
+22    struct tcrypt_result result; 
+23    char *scratchpad; 
+24    char *ciphertext; 
+25    char *ivdata; 
 26}; 
 27 
-28static struct skcipher_def sk; 
+28static struct skcipher_def sk; 
 29 
-30static void test_skcipher_finish(struct skcipher_def *sk) 
+30static void test_skcipher_finish(struct skcipher_def *sk) 
 31{ 
-32    if (sk->tfm) 
+32    if (sk->tfm) 
 33        crypto_free_skcipher(sk->tfm); 
-34    if (sk->req) 
+34    if (sk->req) 
 35        skcipher_request_free(sk->req); 
-36    if (sk->ivdata) 
+36    if (sk->ivdata) 
 37        kfree(sk->ivdata); 
-38    if (sk->scratchpad) 
+38    if (sk->scratchpad) 
 39        kfree(sk->scratchpad); 
-40    if (sk->ciphertext) 
+40    if (sk->ciphertext) 
 41        kfree(sk->ciphertext); 
 42} 
 43 
-44static int test_skcipher_result(struct skcipher_def *sk, int rc) 
+44static int test_skcipher_result(struct skcipher_def *sk, int rc) 
 45{ 
-46    switch (rc) { 
-47    case 0: 
-48        break; 
-49    case -EINPROGRESS || -EBUSY: 
+46    switch (rc) { 
+47    case 0: 
+48        break; 
+49    case -EINPROGRESS || -EBUSY: 
 50        rc = wait_for_completion_interruptible(&sk->result.completion); 
-51        if (!rc && !sk->result.err) { 
+51        if (!rc && !sk->result.err) { 
 52            reinit_completion(&sk->result.completion); 
-53            break; 
+53            break; 
 54        } 
-55        pr_info("skcipher encrypt returned with %d result %d\n", rc, 
+55        pr_info("skcipher encrypt returned with %d result %d\n", rc, 
 56                sk->result.err); 
-57        break; 
-58    default: 
-59        pr_info("skcipher encrypt returned with %d result %d\n", rc, 
+57        break; 
+58    default: 
+59        pr_info("skcipher encrypt returned with %d result %d\n", rc, 
 60                sk->result.err); 
-61        break; 
+61        break; 
 62    } 
 63 
 64    init_completion(&sk->result.completion); 
 65 
-66    return rc; 
+66    return rc; 
 67} 
 68 
-69static void test_skcipher_callback(struct crypto_async_request *req, int error) 
+69static void test_skcipher_callback(struct crypto_async_request *req, int error) 
 70{ 
-71    struct tcrypt_result *result = req->data; 
+71    struct tcrypt_result *result = req->data; 
 72 
-73    if (error == -EINPROGRESS) 
-74        return; 
+73    if (error == -EINPROGRESS) 
+74        return; 
 75 
 76    result->err = error; 
 77    complete(&result->completion); 
-78    pr_info("Encryption finished successfully\n"); 
+78    pr_info("Encryption finished successfully\n"); 
 79 
-80    /* decrypt data */ 
-81#if 0 
-82    memset((void*)sk.scratchpad, '-', CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
-83    ret = crypto_skcipher_decrypt(sk.req); 
-84    ret = test_skcipher_result(&sk, ret); 
-85    if (ret) 
-86        return; 
+80    /* decrypt data */ 
+81#if 0 
+82    memset((void*)sk.scratchpad, '-', CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
+83    ret = crypto_skcipher_decrypt(sk.req); 
+84    ret = test_skcipher_result(&sk, ret); 
+85    if (ret) 
+86        return; 
 87 
-88    sg_copy_from_buffer(&sk.sg, 1, sk.scratchpad, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
-89    sk.scratchpad[CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE-1] = 0; 
+88    sg_copy_from_buffer(&sk.sg, 1, sk.scratchpad, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
+89    sk.scratchpad[CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE-1] = 0; 
 90 
-91    pr_info("Decryption request successful\n"); 
-92    pr_info("Decrypted: %s\n", sk.scratchpad); 
-93#endif 
+91    pr_info("Decryption request successful\n"); 
+92    pr_info("Decrypted: %s\n", sk.scratchpad); 
+93#endif 
 94} 
 95 
-96static int test_skcipher_encrypt(char *plaintext, char *password, 
-97                                 struct skcipher_def *sk) 
+96static int test_skcipher_encrypt(char *plaintext, char *password, 
+97                                 struct skcipher_def *sk) 
 98{ 
-99    int ret = -EFAULT; 
-100    unsigned char key[SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH]; 
+99    int ret = -EFAULT; 
+100    unsigned char key[SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH]; 
 101 
-102    if (!sk->tfm) { 
-103        sk->tfm = crypto_alloc_skcipher("cbc-aes-aesni", 0, 0); 
-104        if (IS_ERR(sk->tfm)) { 
-105            pr_info("could not allocate skcipher handle\n"); 
-106            return PTR_ERR(sk->tfm); 
+102    if (!sk->tfm) { 
+103        sk->tfm = crypto_alloc_skcipher("cbc-aes-aesni", 0, 0); 
+104        if (IS_ERR(sk->tfm)) { 
+105            pr_info("could not allocate skcipher handle\n"); 
+106            return PTR_ERR(sk->tfm); 
 107        } 
 108    } 
 109 
-110    if (!sk->req) { 
+110    if (!sk->req) { 
 111        sk->req = skcipher_request_alloc(sk->tfm, GFP_KERNEL); 
-112        if (!sk->req) { 
-113            pr_info("could not allocate skcipher request\n"); 
+112        if (!sk->req) { 
+113            pr_info("could not allocate skcipher request\n"); 
 114            ret = -ENOMEM; 
-115            goto out; 
+115            goto out; 
 116        } 
 117    } 
 118 
 119    skcipher_request_set_callback(sk->req, CRYPTO_TFM_REQ_MAY_BACKLOG, 
 120                                  test_skcipher_callback, &sk->result); 
 121 
-122    /* clear the key */ 
-123    memset((void *)key, '\0', SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH); 
+122    /* clear the key */ 
+123    memset((void *)key, '\0', SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH); 
 124 
-125    /* Use the world's favourite password */ 
-126    sprintf((char *)key, "%s", password); 
+125    /* Use the world's favourite password */ 
+126    sprintf((char *)key, "%s", password); 
 127 
-128    /* AES 256 with given symmetric key */ 
-129    if (crypto_skcipher_setkey(sk->tfm, key, SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH)) { 
-130        pr_info("key could not be set\n"); 
+128    /* AES 256 with given symmetric key */ 
+129    if (crypto_skcipher_setkey(sk->tfm, key, SYMMETRIC_KEY_LENGTH)) { 
+130        pr_info("key could not be set\n"); 
 131        ret = -EAGAIN; 
-132        goto out; 
+132        goto out; 
 133    } 
-134    pr_info("Symmetric key: %s\n", key); 
-135    pr_info("Plaintext: %s\n", plaintext); 
+134    pr_info("Symmetric key: %s\n", key); 
+135    pr_info("Plaintext: %s\n", plaintext); 
 136 
-137    if (!sk->ivdata) { 
-138        /* see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initialization_vector */ 
+137    if (!sk->ivdata) { 
+138        /* see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initialization_vector */ 
 139        sk->ivdata = kmalloc(CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE, GFP_KERNEL); 
-140        if (!sk->ivdata) { 
-141            pr_info("could not allocate ivdata\n"); 
-142            goto out; 
+140        if (!sk->ivdata) { 
+141            pr_info("could not allocate ivdata\n"); 
+142            goto out; 
 143        } 
 144        get_random_bytes(sk->ivdata, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
 145    } 
 146 
-147    if (!sk->scratchpad) { 
-148        /* The text to be encrypted */ 
+147    if (!sk->scratchpad) { 
+148        /* The text to be encrypted */ 
 149        sk->scratchpad = kmalloc(CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE, GFP_KERNEL); 
-150        if (!sk->scratchpad) { 
-151            pr_info("could not allocate scratchpad\n"); 
-152            goto out; 
+150        if (!sk->scratchpad) { 
+151            pr_info("could not allocate scratchpad\n"); 
+152            goto out; 
 153        } 
 154    } 
-155    sprintf((char *)sk->scratchpad, "%s", plaintext); 
+155    sprintf((char *)sk->scratchpad, "%s", plaintext); 
 156 
 157    sg_init_one(&sk->sg, sk->scratchpad, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE); 
 158    skcipher_request_set_crypt(sk->req, &sk->sg, &sk->sg, CIPHER_BLOCK_SIZE, 
 159                               sk->ivdata); 
 160    init_completion(&sk->result.completion); 
 161 
-162    /* encrypt data */ 
+162    /* encrypt data */ 
 163    ret = crypto_skcipher_encrypt(sk->req); 
 164    ret = test_skcipher_result(sk, ret); 
-165    if (ret) 
-166        goto out; 
+165    if (ret) 
+166        goto out; 
 167 
-168    pr_info("Encryption request successful\n"); 
+168    pr_info("Encryption request successful\n"); 
 169 
 170out: 
-171    return ret; 
+171    return ret; 
 172} 
 173 
-174static int cryptoapi_init(void) 
+174static int cryptoapi_init(void) 
 175{ 
-176    /* The world's favorite password */ 
-177    char *password = "password123"; 
+176    /* The world's favorite password */ 
+177    char *password = "password123"; 
 178 
 179    sk.tfm = NULL; 
 180    sk.req = NULL; 
@@ -5527,11 +5577,11 @@ and a password.
 182    sk.ciphertext = NULL; 
 183    sk.ivdata = NULL; 
 184 
-185    test_skcipher_encrypt("Testing", password, &sk); 
-186    return 0; 
+185    test_skcipher_encrypt("Testing", password, &sk); 
+186    return 0; 
 187} 
 188 
-189static void cryptoapi_exit(void) 
+189static void cryptoapi_exit(void) 
 190{ 
 191    test_skcipher_finish(&sk); 
 192} 
@@ -5539,12 +5589,12 @@ and a password.
 194module_init(cryptoapi_init); 
 195module_exit(cryptoapi_exit); 
 196 
-197MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Symmetric key encryption example"); 
-198MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
-
    
+197MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Symmetric key encryption example"); 
+198MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    17    Virtual Input Device Driver
    
-
    The input device driver is a module that provides a way to communicate
+
    The input device driver is a module that provides a way to communicate
 with the interaction device via the event. For example, the keyboard
 can send the press or release event to tell the kernel what we want to
 do. The input device driver will allocate a new input structure with
@@ -5552,7 +5602,7 @@ do. The input device driver will allocate a new input structure with
  and sets up input bitfields, device id, version, etc. After that, registers it by calling
  input_register_device()
 .
-
       Here is an example, vinput, It is an API to allow easy
+
       Here is an example, vinput, It is an API to allow easy
 development of virtual input drivers. The drivers needs to export a
  vinput_device()
  that contains the virtual device name and
@@ -5568,7 +5618,7 @@ development of virtual input drivers. The drivers needs to export a
      
      
  • the readback function:   read()
      
    • 
-
       Then using   vinput_register_device()
+
       Then using   vinput_register_device()
  and   vinput_unregister_device()
  will add a new device to the list of support virtual input devices.
 
    
@@ -5576,489 +5626,518 @@ development of virtual input drivers. The drivers needs to export a
 
                                                                   
 
    
-   
    1int init(struct vinput *);
    
-
       This function is passed a   struct vinput
- already initialized with an allocated   struct input_dev
+   
    1int init(struct vinput *);
    
+
       This function is passed a   struct vinput
+ already initialized with an allocated   struct input_dev
 . The   init()
  function is responsible for initializing the capabilities of the input device and register
 it.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1int send(struct vinput *, char *, int);
    
-
       This function will receive a user string to interpret and inject the event using the
+   
    1int send(struct vinput *, char *, int);
    
+
       This function will receive a user string to interpret and inject the event using the
  input_report_XXXX
  or   input_event
  call. The string is already copied from user.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1int read(struct vinput *, char *, int);
    
-
       This function is used for debugging and should fill the buffer parameter with the
+   
    1int read(struct vinput *, char *, int);
    
+
       This function is used for debugging and should fill the buffer parameter with the
 last event sent in the virtual input device format. The buffer will then be copied to
 user.
-
       vinput devices are created and destroyed using sysfs. And, event injection is
-done through a /dev node. The device name will be used by the userland to
-export a new virtual input device. To create a vinputX sysfs entry and /dev
-node.
+
       vinput devices are created and destroyed using sysfs. And, event injection is done
+through a /dev node. The device name will be used by the userland to export a new
+virtual input device.
+
       The   class_attribute
+ structure is similar to other attribute types we talked about in section 8:
 
    
 
    
-   
    1echo "vkbd" | sudo tee /sys/class/vinput/export
    
-
       To unexport the device, just echo its id in unexport:
+   
    1struct class_attribute { 
+2    struct attribute attr; 
+3    ssize_t (*show)(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
+4                    char *buf); 
+5    ssize_t (*store)(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
+6                    const char *buf, size_t count); 
+7};
    
+
       In vinput.c, the macro   CLASS_ATTR_WO(export/unexport)
+ defined in include/linux/device.h (in this case, device.h is included in include/linux/input.h)
+will generate the   class_attribute
+ structures which are named class_attr_export/unexport. Then, put them into
+ vinput_class_attrs
+ array and the macro   ATTRIBUTE_GROUPS(vinput_class)
+ will generate the   struct attribute_group vinput_class_group
+ that should be assigned in   vinput_class
+. Finally, call   class_register(&vinput_class)
+ to create attributes in sysfs.
+
       To create a vinputX sysfs entry and /dev node.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1echo "0" | sudo tee /sys/class/vinput/unexport
    
-
-
    
-
    
-   
    1#ifndef VINPUT_H 
-2#define VINPUT_H 
-3 
-4#include <linux/input.h> 
-5#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
-6 
-7#define VINPUT_MAX_LEN 128 
-8#define MAX_VINPUT 32 
-9#define VINPUT_MINORS MAX_VINPUT 
-10 
-11#define dev_to_vinput(dev) container_of(dev, struct vinput, dev) 
-12 
-13struct vinput_device; 
-14 
-15struct vinput { 
-16    long id; 
-17    long devno; 
-18    long last_entry; 
-19    spinlock_t lock; 
-20 
-21    void *priv_data; 
-22 
-23    struct device dev; 
-24    struct list_head list; 
-25    struct input_dev *input; 
-26    struct vinput_device *type; 
-27}; 
-28 
-29struct vinput_ops { 
-30    int (*init)(struct vinput *); 
-31    int (*kill)(struct vinput *); 
-32    int (*send)(struct vinput *, char *, int); 
-33    int (*read)(struct vinput *, char *, int); 
-34}; 
-35 
-36struct vinput_device { 
-37    char name[16]; 
-38    struct list_head list; 
-39    struct vinput_ops *ops; 
-40}; 
-41 
-42int vinput_register(struct vinput_device *dev); 
-43void vinput_unregister(struct vinput_device *dev); 
-44 
-45#endif
    
-
-
    
-
    
-   
    1#include <linux/cdev.h> 
-2#include <linux/input.h> 
-3#include <linux/module.h> 
-4#include <linux/slab.h> 
-5#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
-6 
-7#include <asm/uaccess.h> 
-8 
-9#include "vinput.h" 
-10 
-11#define DRIVER_NAME "vinput" 
-12 
-13#define dev_to_vinput(dev) container_of(dev, struct vinput, dev) 
-14 
-15static DECLARE_BITMAP(vinput_ids, VINPUT_MINORS); 
-16 
-17static LIST_HEAD(vinput_devices); 
-18static LIST_HEAD(vinput_vdevices); 
-19 
-20static int vinput_dev; 
-21static struct spinlock vinput_lock; 
-22static struct class vinput_class; 
-23 
-24/* Search the name of vinput device in the vinput_devices linked list, 
-25 * which added at vinput_register(). 
-26 */ 
-27static struct vinput_device *vinput_get_device_by_type(const char *type) 
-28{ 
-29    int found = 0; 
-30    struct vinput_device *vinput; 
-31    struct list_head *curr; 
-32 
-33    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-34    list_for_each (curr, &vinput_devices) { 
-35        vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput_device, list); 
-36        if (vinput && strncmp(type, vinput->name, strlen(vinput->name)) == 0) { 
-37            found = 1; 
-38            break; 
-39        } 
-40    } 
-41    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-42 
-43    if (found) 
-44        return vinput; 
-45    return ERR_PTR(-ENODEV); 
-46} 
-47 
-48/* Search the id of virtual device in the vinput_vdevices linked list, 
-49 * which added at vinput_alloc_vdevice(). 
-50 */ 
-51static struct vinput *vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(long id) 
-52{ 
-53    struct vinput *vinput = NULL; 
-54    struct list_head *curr; 
-55 
-56    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-57    list_for_each (curr, &vinput_vdevices) { 
-58        vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput, list); 
-59        if (vinput && vinput->id == id) 
-60            break; 
-61    } 
-62    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-63 
-64    if (vinput && vinput->id == id) 
-65        return vinput; 
-66    return ERR_PTR(-ENODEV); 
-67} 
-68 
-69static int vinput_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
-70{ 
-71    int err = 0; 
-72    struct vinput *vinput = NULL; 
-73 
-74    vinput = vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(iminor(inode)); 
-75 
-76    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) 
-77        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
-78    else 
-79        file->private_data = vinput; 
-80 
-81    return err; 
-82} 
-83 
-84static int vinput_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
-85{ 
-86    return 0; 
-87} 
-88 
-89static ssize_t vinput_read(struct file *file, char __user *buffer, size_t count, 
-90                           loff_t *offset) 
-91{ 
-92    int len; 
-93    char buff[VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1]; 
-94    struct vinput *vinput = file->private_data; 
-95 
-96    len = vinput->type->ops->read(vinput, buff, count); 
-97 
-98    if (*offset > len) 
-99        count = 0; 
-100    else if (count + *offset > VINPUT_MAX_LEN) 
-101        count = len - *offset; 
-102 
-103    if (raw_copy_to_user(buffer, buff + *offset, count)) 
-104        count = -EFAULT; 
-105 
-106    *offset += count; 
-107 
-108    return count; 
-109} 
-110 
-111static ssize_t vinput_write(struct file *file, const char __user *buffer, 
-112                            size_t count, loff_t *offset) 
-113{ 
-114    char buff[VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1]; 
-115    struct vinput *vinput = file->private_data; 
-116 
-117    memset(buff, 0, sizeof(char) * (VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1)); 
-118 
-119    if (count > VINPUT_MAX_LEN) { 
-120        dev_warn(&vinput->dev, "Too long. %d bytes allowed\n", VINPUT_MAX_LEN); 
-121        return -EINVAL; 
-122    } 
-123 
-124    if (raw_copy_from_user(buff, buffer, count)) 
-125        return -EFAULT; 
-126 
-127    return vinput->type->ops->send(vinput, buff, count); 
-128} 
-129 
-130static const struct file_operations vinput_fops = { 
-131    .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
-132    .open = vinput_open, 
-133    .release = vinput_release, 
-134    .read = vinput_read, 
-135    .write = vinput_write, 
-136}; 
-137 
-138static void vinput_unregister_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
-139{ 
-140    input_unregister_device(vinput->input); 
-141    if (vinput->type->ops->kill) 
-142        vinput->type->ops->kill(vinput); 
-143} 
-144 
-145static void vinput_destroy_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
-146{ 
-147    /* Remove from the list first */ 
-148    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-149    list_del(&vinput->list); 
-150    clear_bit(vinput->id, vinput_ids); 
-151    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-152 
-153    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
-154 
-155    kfree(vinput); 
-156} 
-157 
-158static void vinput_release_dev(struct device *dev) 
-159{ 
-160    struct vinput *vinput = dev_to_vinput(dev); 
-161    int id = vinput->id; 
-162 
-163    vinput_destroy_vdevice(vinput); 
-164 
-165    pr_debug("released vinput%d.\n", id); 
-166} 
-167 
-168static struct vinput *vinput_alloc_vdevice(void) 
-169{ 
-170    int err; 
-171    struct vinput *vinput = kzalloc(sizeof(struct vinput), GFP_KERNEL); 
-172 
-173    try_module_get(THIS_MODULE); 
-174 
-175    memset(vinput, 0, sizeof(struct vinput)); 
-176 
-177    spin_lock_init(&vinput->lock); 
-178 
-179    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-180    vinput->id = find_first_zero_bit(vinput_ids, VINPUT_MINORS); 
-181    if (vinput->id >= VINPUT_MINORS) { 
-182        err = -ENOBUFS; 
-183        goto fail_id; 
-184    } 
-185    set_bit(vinput->id, vinput_ids); 
-186    list_add(&vinput->list, &vinput_vdevices); 
-187    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-188 
-189    /* allocate the input device */ 
-190    vinput->input = input_allocate_device(); 
-191    if (vinput->input == NULL) { 
-192        pr_err("vinput: Cannot allocate vinput input device\n"); 
-193        err = -ENOMEM; 
-194        goto fail_input_dev; 
-195    } 
-196 
-197    /* initialize device */ 
-198    vinput->dev.class = &vinput_class; 
-199    vinput->dev.release = vinput_release_dev; 
-200    vinput->dev.devt = MKDEV(vinput_dev, vinput->id); 
-201    dev_set_name(&vinput->dev, DRIVER_NAME "%lu", vinput->id); 
-202 
-203    return vinput; 
-204 
-205fail_input_dev: 
-206    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-207    list_del(&vinput->list); 
-208fail_id: 
-209    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-210    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
-211    kfree(vinput); 
-212 
-213    return ERR_PTR(err); 
-214} 
-215 
-216static int vinput_register_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
-217{ 
-218    int err = 0; 
-219 
-220    /* register the input device */ 
-221    vinput->input->name = vinput->type->name; 
-222    vinput->input->phys = "vinput"; 
-223    vinput->input->dev.parent = &vinput->dev; 
-224 
-225    vinput->input->id.bustype = BUS_VIRTUAL; 
-226    vinput->input->id.product = 0x0000; 
-227    vinput->input->id.vendor = 0x0000; 
-228    vinput->input->id.version = 0x0000; 
-229 
-230    err = vinput->type->ops->init(vinput); 
-231 
-232    if (err == 0) 
-233        dev_info(&vinput->dev, "Registered virtual input %s %ld\n", 
-234                 vinput->type->name, vinput->id); 
-235 
-236    return err; 
-237} 
-238 
-239static ssize_t export_store(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
-240                            const char *buf, size_t len) 
-241{ 
-242    int err; 
-243    struct vinput *vinput; 
-244    struct vinput_device *device; 
-245 
-246    device = vinput_get_device_by_type(buf); 
-247    if (IS_ERR(device)) { 
-248        pr_info("vinput: This virtual device isn't registered\n"); 
-249        err = PTR_ERR(device); 
-250        goto fail; 
-251    } 
-252 
-253    vinput = vinput_alloc_vdevice(); 
-254    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) { 
-255        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
-256        goto fail; 
-257    } 
-258 
-259    vinput->type = device; 
-260    err = device_register(&vinput->dev); 
-261    if (err < 0) 
-262        goto fail_register; 
-263 
-264    err = vinput_register_vdevice(vinput); 
-265    if (err < 0) 
-266        goto fail_register_vinput; 
-267 
-268    return len; 
-269 
-270fail_register_vinput: 
-271    device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
-272fail_register: 
-273    vinput_destroy_vdevice(vinput); 
-274fail: 
-275    return err; 
-276} 
-277/* This macro generates class_attr_export structure and export_store() */ 
-278static CLASS_ATTR_WO(export); 
-279 
-280static ssize_t unexport_store(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
-281                              const char *buf, size_t len) 
-282{ 
-283    int err; 
-284    unsigned long id; 
-285    struct vinput *vinput; 
-286 
-287    err = kstrtol(buf, 10, &id); 
-288    if (err) { 
-289        err = -EINVAL; 
-290        goto failed; 
-291    } 
-292 
-293    vinput = vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(id); 
-294    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) { 
-295        pr_err("vinput: No such vinput device %ld\n", id); 
-296        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
-297        goto failed; 
-298    } 
-299 
-300    vinput_unregister_vdevice(vinput); 
-301    device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
-302 
-303    return len; 
-304failed: 
-305    return err; 
-306} 
-307/* This macro generates class_attr_unexport structure and unexport_store() */ 
-308static CLASS_ATTR_WO(unexport); 
-309 
-310static struct attribute *vinput_class_attrs[] = { 
-311    &class_attr_export.attr, 
-312    &class_attr_unexport.attr, 
-313    NULL, 
-314}; 
-315 
-316/* This macro generates vinput_class_groups structure */ 
-317ATTRIBUTE_GROUPS(vinput_class); 
-318 
-319static struct class vinput_class = { 
-320    .name = "vinput", 
-321    .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
-322    .class_groups = vinput_class_groups, 
-323}; 
-324 
-325int vinput_register(struct vinput_device *dev) 
-326{ 
-327    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-328    list_add(&dev->list, &vinput_devices); 
-329    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-330 
-331    pr_info("vinput: registered new virtual input device '%s'\n", dev->name); 
-332 
-333    return 0; 
-334} 
-335EXPORT_SYMBOL(vinput_register); 
-336 
-337void vinput_unregister(struct vinput_device *dev) 
-338{ 
-339    struct list_head *curr, *next; 
-340 
-341    /* Remove from the list first */ 
-342    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
-343    list_del(&dev->list); 
-344    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
-345 
-346    /* unregister all devices of this type */ 
-347    list_for_each_safe (curr, next, &vinput_vdevices) { 
-348        struct vinput *vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput, list); 
-349        if (vinput && vinput->type == dev) { 
-350            vinput_unregister_vdevice(vinput); 
-351            device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
-352        } 
-353    } 
-354 
-355    pr_info("vinput: unregistered virtual input device '%s'\n", dev->name); 
-356} 
-357EXPORT_SYMBOL(vinput_unregister); 
-358 
-359static int __init vinput_init(void) 
-360{ 
-361    int err = 0; 
-362 
-363    pr_info("vinput: Loading virtual input driver\n"); 
-364 
-365    vinput_dev = register_chrdev(0, DRIVER_NAME, &vinput_fops); 
-366    if (vinput_dev < 0) { 
-367        pr_err("vinput: Unable to allocate char dev region\n"); 
-368        goto failed_alloc; 
-369    } 
-370 
-371    spin_lock_init(&vinput_lock); 
-372 
-373    err = class_register(&vinput_class); 
-374    if (err < 0) { 
-375        pr_err("vinput: Unable to register vinput class\n"); 
-376        goto failed_class; 
-377    } 
-378 
-379    return 0; 
-380failed_class: 
-381    class_unregister(&vinput_class); 
-382failed_alloc: 
-383    return err; 
-384} 
-385 
-386static void __exit vinput_end(void) 
-387{ 
-388    pr_info("vinput: Unloading virtual input driver\n"); 
-389 
-390    unregister_chrdev(vinput_dev, DRIVER_NAME); 
-391    class_unregister(&vinput_class); 
-392} 
-393 
-394module_init(vinput_init); 
-395module_exit(vinput_end); 
-396 
-397MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-398MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Emulate input events");
    
+   
    1echo "vkbd" | sudo tee /sys/class/vinput/export
    
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
       Here the virtual keyboard is one of example to use vinput. It supports all
+
       To unexport the device, just echo its id in unexport:
+
    
+
    
+   
    1echo "0" | sudo tee /sys/class/vinput/unexport
    
+
+
    
+
    
+   
    1/* 
+2 * vinput.h 
+3 */ 
+4 
+5#ifndef VINPUT_H 
+6#define VINPUT_H 
+7 
+8#include <linux/input.h> 
+9#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
+10 
+11#define VINPUT_MAX_LEN 128 
+12#define MAX_VINPUT 32 
+13#define VINPUT_MINORS MAX_VINPUT 
+14 
+15#define dev_to_vinput(dev) container_of(dev, struct vinput, dev) 
+16 
+17struct vinput_device; 
+18 
+19struct vinput { 
+20    long id; 
+21    long devno; 
+22    long last_entry; 
+23    spinlock_t lock; 
+24 
+25    void *priv_data; 
+26 
+27    struct device dev; 
+28    struct list_head list; 
+29    struct input_dev *input; 
+30    struct vinput_device *type; 
+31}; 
+32 
+33struct vinput_ops { 
+34    int (*init)(struct vinput *); 
+35    int (*kill)(struct vinput *); 
+36    int (*send)(struct vinput *, char *, int); 
+37    int (*read)(struct vinput *, char *, int); 
+38}; 
+39 
+40struct vinput_device { 
+41    char name[16]; 
+42    struct list_head list; 
+43    struct vinput_ops *ops; 
+44}; 
+45 
+46int vinput_register(struct vinput_device *dev); 
+47void vinput_unregister(struct vinput_device *dev); 
+48 
+49#endif
    
+
+
    
+
    
+   
    1/* 
+2 * vinput.c 
+3 */ 
+4 
+5#include <linux/cdev.h> 
+6#include <linux/input.h> 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
+8#include <linux/slab.h> 
+9#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
+10 
+11#include <asm/uaccess.h> 
+12 
+13#include "vinput.h" 
+14 
+15#define DRIVER_NAME "vinput" 
+16 
+17#define dev_to_vinput(dev) container_of(dev, struct vinput, dev) 
+18 
+19static DECLARE_BITMAP(vinput_ids, VINPUT_MINORS); 
+20 
+21static LIST_HEAD(vinput_devices); 
+22static LIST_HEAD(vinput_vdevices); 
+23 
+24static int vinput_dev; 
+25static struct spinlock vinput_lock; 
+26static struct class vinput_class; 
+27 
+28/* Search the name of vinput device in the vinput_devices linked list, 
+29 * which added at vinput_register(). 
+30 */ 
+31static struct vinput_device *vinput_get_device_by_type(const char *type) 
+32{ 
+33    int found = 0; 
+34    struct vinput_device *vinput; 
+35    struct list_head *curr; 
+36 
+37    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+38    list_for_each (curr, &vinput_devices) { 
+39        vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput_device, list); 
+40        if (vinput && strncmp(type, vinput->name, strlen(vinput->name)) == 0) { 
+41            found = 1; 
+42            break; 
+43        } 
+44    } 
+45    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+46 
+47    if (found) 
+48        return vinput; 
+49    return ERR_PTR(-ENODEV); 
+50} 
+51 
+52/* Search the id of virtual device in the vinput_vdevices linked list, 
+53 * which added at vinput_alloc_vdevice(). 
+54 */ 
+55static struct vinput *vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(long id) 
+56{ 
+57    struct vinput *vinput = NULL; 
+58    struct list_head *curr; 
+59 
+60    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+61    list_for_each (curr, &vinput_vdevices) { 
+62        vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput, list); 
+63        if (vinput && vinput->id == id) 
+64            break; 
+65    } 
+66    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+67 
+68    if (vinput && vinput->id == id) 
+69        return vinput; 
+70    return ERR_PTR(-ENODEV); 
+71} 
+72 
+73static int vinput_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+74{ 
+75    int err = 0; 
+76    struct vinput *vinput = NULL; 
+77 
+78    vinput = vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(iminor(inode)); 
+79 
+80    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) 
+81        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
+82    else 
+83        file->private_data = vinput; 
+84 
+85    return err; 
+86} 
+87 
+88static int vinput_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file) 
+89{ 
+90    return 0; 
+91} 
+92 
+93static ssize_t vinput_read(struct file *file, char __user *buffer, size_t count, 
+94                           loff_t *offset) 
+95{ 
+96    int len; 
+97    char buff[VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1]; 
+98    struct vinput *vinput = file->private_data; 
+99 
+100    len = vinput->type->ops->read(vinput, buff, count); 
+101 
+102    if (*offset > len) 
+103        count = 0; 
+104    else if (count + *offset > VINPUT_MAX_LEN) 
+105        count = len - *offset; 
+106 
+107    if (raw_copy_to_user(buffer, buff + *offset, count)) 
+108        count = -EFAULT; 
+109 
+110    *offset += count; 
+111 
+112    return count; 
+113} 
+114 
+115static ssize_t vinput_write(struct file *file, const char __user *buffer, 
+116                            size_t count, loff_t *offset) 
+117{ 
+118    char buff[VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1]; 
+119    struct vinput *vinput = file->private_data; 
+120 
+121    memset(buff, 0, sizeof(char) * (VINPUT_MAX_LEN + 1)); 
+122 
+123    if (count > VINPUT_MAX_LEN) { 
+124        dev_warn(&vinput->dev, "Too long. %d bytes allowed\n", VINPUT_MAX_LEN); 
+125        return -EINVAL; 
+126    } 
+127 
+128    if (raw_copy_from_user(buff, buffer, count)) 
+129        return -EFAULT; 
+130 
+131    return vinput->type->ops->send(vinput, buff, count); 
+132} 
+133 
+134static const struct file_operations vinput_fops = { 
+135    .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
+136    .open = vinput_open, 
+137    .release = vinput_release, 
+138    .read = vinput_read, 
+139    .write = vinput_write, 
+140}; 
+141 
+142static void vinput_unregister_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
+143{ 
+144    input_unregister_device(vinput->input); 
+145    if (vinput->type->ops->kill) 
+146        vinput->type->ops->kill(vinput); 
+147} 
+148 
+149static void vinput_destroy_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
+150{ 
+151    /* Remove from the list first */ 
+152    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+153    list_del(&vinput->list); 
+154    clear_bit(vinput->id, vinput_ids); 
+155    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+156 
+157    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
+158 
+159    kfree(vinput); 
+160} 
+161 
+162static void vinput_release_dev(struct device *dev) 
+163{ 
+164    struct vinput *vinput = dev_to_vinput(dev); 
+165    int id = vinput->id; 
+166 
+167    vinput_destroy_vdevice(vinput); 
+168 
+169    pr_debug("released vinput%d.\n", id); 
+170} 
+171 
+172static struct vinput *vinput_alloc_vdevice(void) 
+173{ 
+174    int err; 
+175    struct vinput *vinput = kzalloc(sizeof(struct vinput), GFP_KERNEL); 
+176 
+177    try_module_get(THIS_MODULE); 
+178 
+179    memset(vinput, 0, sizeof(struct vinput)); 
+180 
+181    spin_lock_init(&vinput->lock); 
+182 
+183    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+184    vinput->id = find_first_zero_bit(vinput_ids, VINPUT_MINORS); 
+185    if (vinput->id >= VINPUT_MINORS) { 
+186        err = -ENOBUFS; 
+187        goto fail_id; 
+188    } 
+189    set_bit(vinput->id, vinput_ids); 
+190    list_add(&vinput->list, &vinput_vdevices); 
+191    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+192 
+193    /* allocate the input device */ 
+194    vinput->input = input_allocate_device(); 
+195    if (vinput->input == NULL) { 
+196        pr_err("vinput: Cannot allocate vinput input device\n"); 
+197        err = -ENOMEM; 
+198        goto fail_input_dev; 
+199    } 
+200 
+201    /* initialize device */ 
+202    vinput->dev.class = &vinput_class; 
+203    vinput->dev.release = vinput_release_dev; 
+204    vinput->dev.devt = MKDEV(vinput_dev, vinput->id); 
+205    dev_set_name(&vinput->dev, DRIVER_NAME "%lu", vinput->id); 
+206 
+207    return vinput; 
+208 
+209fail_input_dev: 
+210    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+211    list_del(&vinput->list); 
+212fail_id: 
+213    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+214    module_put(THIS_MODULE); 
+215    kfree(vinput); 
+216 
+217    return ERR_PTR(err); 
+218} 
+219 
+220static int vinput_register_vdevice(struct vinput *vinput) 
+221{ 
+222    int err = 0; 
+223 
+224    /* register the input device */ 
+225    vinput->input->name = vinput->type->name; 
+226    vinput->input->phys = "vinput"; 
+227    vinput->input->dev.parent = &vinput->dev; 
+228 
+229    vinput->input->id.bustype = BUS_VIRTUAL; 
+230    vinput->input->id.product = 0x0000; 
+231    vinput->input->id.vendor = 0x0000; 
+232    vinput->input->id.version = 0x0000; 
+233 
+234    err = vinput->type->ops->init(vinput); 
+235 
+236    if (err == 0) 
+237        dev_info(&vinput->dev, "Registered virtual input %s %ld\n", 
+238                 vinput->type->name, vinput->id); 
+239 
+240    return err; 
+241} 
+242 
+243static ssize_t export_store(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
+244                            const char *buf, size_t len) 
+245{ 
+246    int err; 
+247    struct vinput *vinput; 
+248    struct vinput_device *device; 
+249 
+250    device = vinput_get_device_by_type(buf); 
+251    if (IS_ERR(device)) { 
+252        pr_info("vinput: This virtual device isn't registered\n"); 
+253        err = PTR_ERR(device); 
+254        goto fail; 
+255    } 
+256 
+257    vinput = vinput_alloc_vdevice(); 
+258    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) { 
+259        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
+260        goto fail; 
+261    } 
+262 
+263    vinput->type = device; 
+264    err = device_register(&vinput->dev); 
+265    if (err < 0) 
+266        goto fail_register; 
+267 
+268    err = vinput_register_vdevice(vinput); 
+269    if (err < 0) 
+270        goto fail_register_vinput; 
+271 
+272    return len; 
+273 
+274fail_register_vinput: 
+275    device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
+276fail_register: 
+277    vinput_destroy_vdevice(vinput); 
+278fail: 
+279    return err; 
+280} 
+281/* This macro generates class_attr_export structure and export_store() */ 
+282static CLASS_ATTR_WO(export); 
+283 
+284static ssize_t unexport_store(struct class *class, struct class_attribute *attr, 
+285                              const char *buf, size_t len) 
+286{ 
+287    int err; 
+288    unsigned long id; 
+289    struct vinput *vinput; 
+290 
+291    err = kstrtol(buf, 10, &id); 
+292    if (err) { 
+293        err = -EINVAL; 
+294        goto failed; 
+295    } 
+296 
+297    vinput = vinput_get_vdevice_by_id(id); 
+298    if (IS_ERR(vinput)) { 
+299        pr_err("vinput: No such vinput device %ld\n", id); 
+300        err = PTR_ERR(vinput); 
+301        goto failed; 
+302    } 
+303 
+304    vinput_unregister_vdevice(vinput); 
+305    device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
+306 
+307    return len; 
+308failed: 
+309    return err; 
+310} 
+311/* This macro generates class_attr_unexport structure and unexport_store() */ 
+312static CLASS_ATTR_WO(unexport); 
+313 
+314static struct attribute *vinput_class_attrs[] = { 
+315    &class_attr_export.attr, 
+316    &class_attr_unexport.attr, 
+317    NULL, 
+318}; 
+319 
+320/* This macro generates vinput_class_groups structure */ 
+321ATTRIBUTE_GROUPS(vinput_class); 
+322 
+323static struct class vinput_class = { 
+324    .name = "vinput", 
+325    .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
+326    .class_groups = vinput_class_groups, 
+327}; 
+328 
+329int vinput_register(struct vinput_device *dev) 
+330{ 
+331    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+332    list_add(&dev->list, &vinput_devices); 
+333    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+334 
+335    pr_info("vinput: registered new virtual input device '%s'\n", dev->name); 
+336 
+337    return 0; 
+338} 
+339EXPORT_SYMBOL(vinput_register); 
+340 
+341void vinput_unregister(struct vinput_device *dev) 
+342{ 
+343    struct list_head *curr, *next; 
+344 
+345    /* Remove from the list first */ 
+346    spin_lock(&vinput_lock); 
+347    list_del(&dev->list); 
+348    spin_unlock(&vinput_lock); 
+349 
+350    /* unregister all devices of this type */ 
+351    list_for_each_safe (curr, next, &vinput_vdevices) { 
+352        struct vinput *vinput = list_entry(curr, struct vinput, list); 
+353        if (vinput && vinput->type == dev) { 
+354            vinput_unregister_vdevice(vinput); 
+355            device_unregister(&vinput->dev); 
+356        } 
+357    } 
+358 
+359    pr_info("vinput: unregistered virtual input device '%s'\n", dev->name); 
+360} 
+361EXPORT_SYMBOL(vinput_unregister); 
+362 
+363static int __init vinput_init(void) 
+364{ 
+365    int err = 0; 
+366 
+367    pr_info("vinput: Loading virtual input driver\n"); 
+368 
+369    vinput_dev = register_chrdev(0, DRIVER_NAME, &vinput_fops); 
+370    if (vinput_dev < 0) { 
+371        pr_err("vinput: Unable to allocate char dev region\n"); 
+372        goto failed_alloc; 
+373    } 
+374 
+375    spin_lock_init(&vinput_lock); 
+376 
+377    err = class_register(&vinput_class); 
+378    if (err < 0) { 
+379        pr_err("vinput: Unable to register vinput class\n"); 
+380        goto failed_class; 
+381    } 
+382 
+383    return 0; 
+384failed_class: 
+385    class_unregister(&vinput_class); 
+386failed_alloc: 
+387    return err; 
+388} 
+389 
+390static void __exit vinput_end(void) 
+391{ 
+392    pr_info("vinput: Unloading virtual input driver\n"); 
+393 
+394    unregister_chrdev(vinput_dev, DRIVER_NAME); 
+395    class_unregister(&vinput_class); 
+396} 
+397 
+398module_init(vinput_init); 
+399module_exit(vinput_end); 
+400 
+401MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+402MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Emulate input events");
    
+
       Here the virtual keyboard is one of example to use vinput. It supports all
  KEY_MAX
  keycodes. The injection format is the   KEY_CODE
  such as defined in include/linux/input.h. A positive value means
@@ -6066,129 +6145,136 @@ node.
  while a negative value is a   KEY_RELEASE
 . The keyboard supports repetition when the key stays pressed for too long. The
 following demonstrates how simulation work.
-
       Simulate a key press on "g" (  KEY_G
+
       Simulate a key press on "g" (  KEY_G
  = 34):
 
    
 
    
-   
    1echo "+34" | sudo tee /dev/vinput0
    
-
       Simulate a key release on "g" (  KEY_G
+   
    1echo "+34" | sudo tee /dev/vinput0
    
+
       Simulate a key release on "g" (  KEY_G
  = 34):
 
    
 
    
-   
    1echo "-34" | sudo tee /dev/vinput0
    
+   
    1echo "-34" | sudo tee /dev/vinput0
    
 
 
    
 
    
-   
    1#include <linux/init.h> 
-2#include <linux/input.h> 
-3#include <linux/module.h> 
-4#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
-5 
-6#include "vinput.h" 
-7 
-8#define VINPUT_KBD "vkbd" 
-9#define VINPUT_RELEASE 0 
-10#define VINPUT_PRESS 1 
-11 
-12static unsigned short vkeymap[KEY_MAX]; 
-13 
-14static int vinput_vkbd_init(struct vinput *vinput) 
-15{ 
-16    int i; 
-17 
-18    /* Set up the input bitfield */ 
-19    vinput->input->evbit[0] = BIT_MASK(EV_KEY) | BIT_MASK(EV_REP); 
-20    vinput->input->keycodesize = sizeof(unsigned short); 
-21    vinput->input->keycodemax = KEY_MAX; 
-22    vinput->input->keycode = vkeymap; 
-23 
-24    for (i = 0; i < KEY_MAX; i++) 
-25        set_bit(vkeymap[i], vinput->input->keybit); 
-26 
-27    /* vinput will help us allocate new input device structure via 
-28     * input_allocate_device(). So, we can register it straightforwardly. 
-29     */ 
-30    return input_register_device(vinput->input); 
-31} 
-32 
-33static int vinput_vkbd_read(struct vinput *vinput, char *buff, int len) 
-34{ 
-35    spin_lock(&vinput->lock); 
-36    len = snprintf(buff, len, "%+ld\n", vinput->last_entry); 
-37    spin_unlock(&vinput->lock); 
-38 
-39    return len; 
-40} 
-41 
-42static int vinput_vkbd_send(struct vinput *vinput, char *buff, int len) 
-43{ 
-44    int ret; 
-45    long key = 0; 
-46    short type = VINPUT_PRESS; 
-47 
-48    /* Determine which event was received (press or release) 
-49     * and store the state. 
-50     */ 
-51    if (buff[0] == '+') 
-52        ret = kstrtol(buff + 1, 10, &key); 
-53    else 
-54        ret = kstrtol(buff, 10, &key); 
-55    if (ret) 
-56        dev_err(&vinput->dev, "error during kstrtol: -%d\n", ret); 
-57    spin_lock(&vinput->lock); 
-58    vinput->last_entry = key; 
-59    spin_unlock(&vinput->lock); 
-60 
-61    if (key < 0) { 
-62        type = VINPUT_RELEASE; 
-63        key = -key; 
-64    } 
-65 
-66    dev_info(&vinput->dev, "Event %s code %ld\n", 
-67             (type == VINPUT_RELEASE) ? "VINPUT_RELEASE" : "VINPUT_PRESS", key); 
-68 
-69    /* Report the state received to input subsystem. */ 
-70    input_report_key(vinput->input, key, type); 
-71    /* Tell input subsystem that it finished the report. */ 
-72    input_sync(vinput->input); 
-73 
-74    return len; 
-75} 
-76 
-77static struct vinput_ops vkbd_ops = { 
-78    .init = vinput_vkbd_init, 
-79    .send = vinput_vkbd_send, 
-80    .read = vinput_vkbd_read, 
-81}; 
-82 
-83static struct vinput_device vkbd_dev = { 
-84    .name = VINPUT_KBD, 
-85    .ops = &vkbd_ops, 
-86}; 
-87 
-88static int __init vkbd_init(void) 
-89{ 
-90    int i; 
-91 
-92    for (i = 0; i < KEY_MAX; i++) 
-93        vkeymap[i] = i; 
-94    return vinput_register(&vkbd_dev); 
-95} 
-96 
-97static void __exit vkbd_end(void) 
-98{ 
-99    vinput_unregister(&vkbd_dev); 
-100} 
-101 
-102module_init(vkbd_init); 
-103module_exit(vkbd_end); 
-104 
-105MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-106MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Emulate keyboard input events through /dev/vinput");
    
-
    
+   
    1/* 
+2 * vkbd.c 
+3 */ 
+4 
+5#include <linux/init.h> 
+6#include <linux/input.h> 
+7#include <linux/module.h> 
+8#include <linux/spinlock.h> 
+9 
+10#include "vinput.h" 
+11 
+12#define VINPUT_KBD "vkbd" 
+13#define VINPUT_RELEASE 0 
+14#define VINPUT_PRESS 1 
+15 
+16static unsigned short vkeymap[KEY_MAX]; 
+17 
+18static int vinput_vkbd_init(struct vinput *vinput) 
+19{ 
+20    int i; 
+21 
+22    /* Set up the input bitfield */ 
+23    vinput->input->evbit[0] = BIT_MASK(EV_KEY) | BIT_MASK(EV_REP); 
+24    vinput->input->keycodesize = sizeof(unsigned short); 
+25    vinput->input->keycodemax = KEY_MAX; 
+26    vinput->input->keycode = vkeymap; 
+27 
+28    for (i = 0; i < KEY_MAX; i++) 
+29        set_bit(vkeymap[i], vinput->input->keybit); 
+30 
+31    /* vinput will help us allocate new input device structure via 
+32     * input_allocate_device(). So, we can register it straightforwardly. 
+33     */ 
+34    return input_register_device(vinput->input); 
+35} 
+36 
+37static int vinput_vkbd_read(struct vinput *vinput, char *buff, int len) 
+38{ 
+39    spin_lock(&vinput->lock); 
+40    len = snprintf(buff, len, "%+ld\n", vinput->last_entry); 
+41    spin_unlock(&vinput->lock); 
+42 
+43    return len; 
+44} 
+45 
+46static int vinput_vkbd_send(struct vinput *vinput, char *buff, int len) 
+47{ 
+48    int ret; 
+49    long key = 0; 
+50    short type = VINPUT_PRESS; 
+51 
+52    /* Determine which event was received (press or release) 
+53     * and store the state. 
+54     */ 
+55    if (buff[0] == '+') 
+56        ret = kstrtol(buff + 1, 10, &key); 
+57    else 
+58        ret = kstrtol(buff, 10, &key); 
+59    if (ret) 
+60        dev_err(&vinput->dev, "error during kstrtol: -%d\n", ret); 
+61    spin_lock(&vinput->lock); 
+62    vinput->last_entry = key; 
+63    spin_unlock(&vinput->lock); 
+64 
+65    if (key < 0) { 
+66        type = VINPUT_RELEASE; 
+67        key = -key; 
+68    } 
+69 
+70    dev_info(&vinput->dev, "Event %s code %ld\n", 
+71             (type == VINPUT_RELEASE) ? "VINPUT_RELEASE" : "VINPUT_PRESS", key); 
+72 
+73    /* Report the state received to input subsystem. */ 
+74    input_report_key(vinput->input, key, type); 
+75    /* Tell input subsystem that it finished the report. */ 
+76    input_sync(vinput->input); 
+77 
+78    return len; 
+79} 
+80 
+81static struct vinput_ops vkbd_ops = { 
+82    .init = vinput_vkbd_init, 
+83    .send = vinput_vkbd_send, 
+84    .read = vinput_vkbd_read, 
+85}; 
+86 
+87static struct vinput_device vkbd_dev = { 
+88    .name = VINPUT_KBD, 
+89    .ops = &vkbd_ops, 
+90}; 
+91 
+92static int __init vkbd_init(void) 
+93{ 
+94    int i; 
+95 
+96    for (i = 0; i < KEY_MAX; i++) 
+97        vkeymap[i] = i; 
+98    return vinput_register(&vkbd_dev); 
+99} 
+100 
+101static void __exit vkbd_end(void) 
+102{ 
+103    vinput_unregister(&vkbd_dev); 
+104} 
+105 
+106module_init(vkbd_init); 
+107module_exit(vkbd_end); 
+108 
+109MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+110MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Emulate keyboard input events through /dev/vinput");
    
+
    
 
    
+                                                                  
+
+                                                                  
    
    18    Standardizing the interfaces: The Device Model
    
-
    Up to this point we have seen all kinds of modules doing all kinds of things, but there
+
    Up to this point we have seen all kinds of modules doing all kinds of things, but there
 was no consistency in their interfaces with the rest of the kernel. To impose some
 consistency such that there is at minimum a standardized way to start, suspend and
 resume a device a device model was added. An example is shown below, and you can
@@ -6196,59 +6282,59 @@ use this as a template to add your own suspend, resume or other interface
 functions.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1/* 
-2 * devicemodel.c 
-3 */ 
-4#include <linux/kernel.h> 
-5#include <linux/module.h> 
-6#include <linux/platform_device.h> 
+   
    1/* 
+2 * devicemodel.c 
+3 */ 
+4#include <linux/kernel.h> 
+5#include <linux/module.h> 
+6#include <linux/platform_device.h> 
 7 
-8struct devicemodel_data { 
-9    char *greeting; 
-10    int number; 
+8struct devicemodel_data { 
+9    char *greeting; 
+10    int number; 
 11}; 
 12 
-13static int devicemodel_probe(struct platform_device *dev) 
+13static int devicemodel_probe(struct platform_device *dev) 
 14{ 
-15    struct devicemodel_data *pd = 
-16        (struct devicemodel_data *)(dev->dev.platform_data); 
+15    struct devicemodel_data *pd = 
+16        (struct devicemodel_data *)(dev->dev.platform_data); 
 17 
-18    pr_info("devicemodel probe\n"); 
-19    pr_info("devicemodel greeting: %s; %d\n", pd->greeting, pd->number); 
+18    pr_info("devicemodel probe\n"); 
+19    pr_info("devicemodel greeting: %s; %d\n", pd->greeting, pd->number); 
 20 
-21    /* Your device initialization code */ 
+21    /* Your device initialization code */ 
 22 
-23    return 0; 
+23    return 0; 
 24} 
 25 
-26static int devicemodel_remove(struct platform_device *dev) 
+26static int devicemodel_remove(struct platform_device *dev) 
 27{ 
-28    pr_info("devicemodel example removed\n"); 
+28    pr_info("devicemodel example removed\n"); 
 29 
-30    /* Your device removal code */ 
+30    /* Your device removal code */ 
 31 
-32    return 0; 
+32    return 0; 
 33} 
 34 
-35static int devicemodel_suspend(struct device *dev) 
+35static int devicemodel_suspend(struct device *dev) 
 36{ 
-37    pr_info("devicemodel example suspend\n"); 
+37    pr_info("devicemodel example suspend\n"); 
 38 
-39    /* Your device suspend code */ 
+39    /* Your device suspend code */ 
 40 
-41    return 0; 
+41    return 0; 
 42} 
 43 
-44static int devicemodel_resume(struct device *dev) 
+44static int devicemodel_resume(struct device *dev) 
 45{ 
-46    pr_info("devicemodel example resume\n"); 
+46    pr_info("devicemodel example resume\n"); 
 47 
-48    /* Your device resume code */ 
+48    /* Your device resume code */ 
 49 
-50    return 0; 
+50    return 0; 
 51} 
 52 
-53static const struct dev_pm_ops devicemodel_pm_ops = { 
+53static const struct dev_pm_ops devicemodel_pm_ops = { 
 54    .suspend = devicemodel_suspend, 
 55    .resume = devicemodel_resume, 
 56    .poweroff = devicemodel_suspend, 
@@ -6257,10 +6343,10 @@ functions.
 59    .restore = devicemodel_resume, 
 60}; 
 61 
-62static struct platform_driver devicemodel_driver = { 
+62static struct platform_driver devicemodel_driver = { 
 63    .driver = 
 64        { 
-65            .name = "devicemodel_example", 
+65            .name = "devicemodel_example", 
 66            .owner = THIS_MODULE, 
 67            .pm = &devicemodel_pm_ops, 
 68        }, 
@@ -6268,43 +6354,40 @@ functions.
 70    .remove = devicemodel_remove, 
 71}; 
 72 
-73static int devicemodel_init(void) 
+73static int devicemodel_init(void) 
 74{ 
-75    int ret; 
+75    int ret; 
 76 
-77    pr_info("devicemodel init\n"); 
+77    pr_info("devicemodel init\n"); 
 78 
 79    ret = platform_driver_register(&devicemodel_driver); 
 80 
-81    if (ret) { 
-82        pr_err("Unable to register driver\n"); 
-83        return ret; 
+81    if (ret) { 
+82        pr_err("Unable to register driver\n"); 
+83        return ret; 
 84    } 
 85 
-86    return 0; 
+86    return 0; 
 87} 
 88 
-89static void devicemodel_exit(void) 
+89static void devicemodel_exit(void) 
 90{ 
-91    pr_info("devicemodel exit\n"); 
+91    pr_info("devicemodel exit\n"); 
 92    platform_driver_unregister(&devicemodel_driver); 
 93} 
 94 
 95module_init(devicemodel_init); 
 96module_exit(devicemodel_exit); 
 97 
-98MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
-99MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Linux Device Model example");
    
-
    
+98MODULE_LICENSE("GPL"); 
+99MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Linux Device Model example");
    
+
    
 
    
    
    19    Optimizations
    
-                                                                  
-
-                                                                  
-
    
+
    
 
    
    
    19.1    Likely and Unlikely conditions
    
-
    Sometimes you might want your code to run as quickly as possible,
+
    Sometimes you might want your code to run as quickly as possible,
 especially if it is handling an interrupt or doing something which might
 cause noticeable latency. If your code contains boolean conditions and if
 you know that the conditions are almost always likely to evaluate as either
@@ -6317,49 +6400,49 @@ you know that the conditions are almost always likely to evaluate as either
 to succeed.
 
    
 
    
-   
    1bvl = bvec_alloc(gfp_mask, nr_iovecs, &idx); 
-2if (unlikely(!bvl)) { 
+   
    1bvl = bvec_alloc(gfp_mask, nr_iovecs, &idx); 
+2if (unlikely(!bvl)) { 
 3    mempool_free(bio, bio_pool); 
 4    bio = NULL; 
-5    goto out; 
+5    goto out; 
 6}
    
-
       When the   unlikely
+
       When the   unlikely
  macro is used, the compiler alters its machine instruction output, so that it
 continues along the false branch and only jumps if the condition is true. That
 avoids flushing the processor pipeline. The opposite happens if you use the
  likely
  macro.
-
    
-
    
-   
    20    Common Pitfalls
    
-
    
-
    
-   
    20.1    Using standard libraries
    
-
    You can not do that. In a kernel module, you can only use kernel functions which are
-the functions you can see in /proc/kallsyms.
-
    
-
    
-   
    20.2    Disabling interrupts
    
-
    You might need to do this for a short time and that is OK, but if you do not enable
-them afterwards, your system will be stuck and you will have to power it
-off.
                                                                   
 
                                                                   
-
    
+
    
+
    
+   
    20    Common Pitfalls
    
+
    
+
    
+   
    20.1    Using standard libraries
    
+
    You can not do that. In a kernel module, you can only use kernel functions which are
+the functions you can see in /proc/kallsyms.
+
    
+
    
+   
    20.2    Disabling interrupts
    
+
    You might need to do this for a short time and that is OK, but if you do not enable
+them afterwards, your system will be stuck and you will have to power it
+off.
+
    
 
    
    
    21    Where To Go From Here?
    
-
    For people seriously interested in kernel programming, I recommend kernelnewbies.org
+
    For people seriously interested in kernel programming, I recommend kernelnewbies.org
 and the Documentation subdirectory within the kernel source code which is not
 always easy to understand but can be a starting point for further investigation. Also,
 as Linus Torvalds said, the best way to learn the kernel is to read the source code
 yourself.
-
       If you would like to contribute to this guide or notice anything glaringly wrong,
+
       If you would like to contribute to this guide or notice anything glaringly wrong,
 please create an issue at https://github.com/sysprog21/lkmpg. Your pull requests
 will be appreciated.
-
       Happy hacking!
+
       Happy hacking!
 
    
-   
         1The goal of threaded interrupts is to push more of the work to separate threads, so that the
+   
         1The goal of threaded interrupts is to push more of the work to separate threads, so that the
 minimum needed for acknowledging an interrupt is reduced, and therefore the time spent handling
 the interrupt (where it can’t handle any other interrupts at the same time) is reduced. See
 https://lwn.net/Articles/302043/.